Contents

1. Introduction
2. What does German Volume Training do?
3. Does German Volume Training Work?
4. Who should/ should not do German Volume Training?
5. How to programme German Volume Training?
6. Example GVT Program
7. Conclusion
8. References

Introduction

Sometimes referred to as the “10 sets method”, German Volume Training (GVT) is purported to have originated in Germany in the 1970s, as an amalgamation of German training approaches, with Rolf Feser as a common name in the early days (9).

Slightly more recently, famed strength coach Charles Poliquin did much for bringing GVT into the mainstream eye, taking its principles and developing them further during the 1990s (9).  Poliquin’s position in the US also helped bring GVT to greater attention (9).

GVT at its heart is incredibly simple; 10 sets of 10 repetitions at around 60 % of one repetition maximum (1RM) for the main lift, accompanied by accessory lifts at various sets and reps (10).  Most training programs involving GVT limit the amount of exercises performed to around 4-5 total exercises per day.

What does GVT do? 

GVT is centred on muscle hypertrophy through high volumes and aims to apply greater metabolic stress on a muscle, thought to be an important factor in promoting muscle hypertrophy (7). Rather than focusing on the amount of weight lifted, GVT is more attuned to time under tension (TuT); the amount of time a muscle spends under load during reps and sets (12). The rationale for GVT is to totally deplete the muscle fibres in one key multi-joint exercise, rather than spreading or dispersing the fatiguing effects of exercise across different fibres as you might with different exercises (10).

Does German Volume Training Work?

One of the most critical variables in influencing the development of strength and hypertrophy is volume (8). High-volume resistance training is associated with greater increases in muscle size (2); Krieger (2010) placed importance on volume load specifically on muscle growth (3).  However, studies suggest that performing sets of greater than 5 does not promote greater hypertrophy and strength (1), with gains plateauing beyond 4-6 sets (4).  Similar results were demonstrated with a modified GVT program compared to training with 5 sets (11).

Conversely, Marshall et al. (13) suggest that muscular strength was only significantly greater following a program of 8 sets of 80 % 1RM squats when compared to 1 and 4 sets and Schoenfeld et al. (14) put forward that minimum intensity of > 65 % 1RM is required to optimize gains in hypertrophy and strength. Although GVT may elicit increases in muscle cross-sectional area when compared to other high-volume methods there were no differences between approaches (5). 

Finally, in well-resistance-trained men, resistance systems (of which GVT can be classified as such) have been touted by powerlifters, bodybuilders and coaches to optimise or maximise strength and mass (6). However, the evidence examined does not determine if systems such as GVT are any more effective than what would be termed “traditional” resistance training.

Who should/ should not do GVT?

Given its simplicity, GVT can be used by anyone, although its application may not be beneficial to all groups.  GVT plans, however they are designed, are aiming for hypertrophic development, to pack on muscle size and by virtue of this, muscle strength (7).  Bodybuilders and strongmen may look at GVT routines to switch up their training for a short period of time.

Depending on their goals, GVT may not appeal to the average lifter or to a beginner weightlifter as it may be too challenging or overbearing. There also may not be enough variation within the program to keep the general population interested.

How to programme GVT?

The optimal length of GVT is debated and needs tailoring to the individual rather than serving as a blanket approach. Within a training block however, an increase in intensity as part of the longer overall block should be considered; some suggest 3 workouts within 5 days, over 4-7 weeks before reassessing and either starting over or beginning a different approach (12). 

Table 1. GVT Example Program
Day 1 – Chest 

Day 3 – Legs

Day 5 – Shoulders

Conclusion

Given the scientific evidence available, GVT is effective because it is a higher volume (either sets or reps or both) programme, rather than being a stand-out approach to training that provides vastly differing results.  It aligns with traditional training methods used to develop muscle size and strength and may be an interesting or engaging type of training for a range of lifters to try out every so often to mix up training and fend off monotony.

The post German Volume Training appeared first on Science for Sport.

1. What is strength training? 
2. What are the principles of strength training? 
3. What are the benefits of strength training? 
4. Misconceptions of strength training 
5. How often should you strength train? 
6. Common strength training equipment 
7. Strength training vs cardio 
8. Does strength training burn calories?
9. Strength training examples
10. Conclusion 
11. References 

What is Strength Training? 

The term strength, or strength training, is often used interchangeably with resistance training or resistance exercises. Strength or muscular strength is defined as the ability to generate maximum external force. (1) An internal force would constitute part of the human body applying force on another part whereas external forces pertain to an environmental force against the human body. Therefore, for this article, the definition of strength relates purely to how the human body can exert force against an external factor. Other definitions relating to strength describe it as the ability to contribute to maximal human efforts in sport and physical activity (2). Regardless of the exact definition used, strength is fundamental to a human being outside of the realm of just sports performance context. Joyce and Lewindon (2014) go on to further define maximal strength as the ability to apply maximal levels of force or strength irrespective of time constraints and relative strength is the ability to apply high levels of force relative to the athlete’s body mass (3).

Strength can be distinguished based on three muscle actions: concentric, isometric, and eccentric contractions. Concentric actions refer to the muscle shortening, and normally maximal strength is measured concentrically before an eccentric movement occurs. Eccentric action is the opposite of concentric in that a muscle creates less tension and lengthens. Isometric contractions almost sit in between concentric and eccentric in that they create tension without shortening or lengthening (4). 

Figure 1 shows an example of the bicep muscle and how each part of a bicep curl will pertain to the type of action being used. As the individual curls the weight towards their body, they are moving it concentrically where the bicep muscle is shortening. As soon as the weight starts to move away from the body, the bicep muscle is lengthening and therefore is the eccentric part of the exercise.

Figure 1. – Muscle can actively exert force regardless of whether the muscle gets shorter, stays the same length, or gets longer due to the opposing force (20).

Strength can often be termed as ‘absolute strength’ or ‘relative strength’. Absolute strength pertains to an athlete’s capacity to exert maximum force regardless of what their body weight is (4), whereas relative strength considers the body weight of an individual and therefore is a ratio of the two. Some sports are divided into various weight categories such as boxing or gymnastics, in which case a high level of relative strength is imperative. 

Finally, general strength training looks at the foundation as an entirety of improving the strength of the entire body. Low general strength levels may indicate or lead to injury or a higher susceptibility of it, or asymmetrical issues and imbalances. Specific strength training takes a more sport-specific approach so athletes can be strong in certain planes, ranges of motions or movements based on the demands of the sport (4).

What are the principles of strength training?

Constructing a strength plan and goals requires us to understand the basic principles to make sure we are getting the biggest bang for our buck. The same goes for aerobic training, these foundational principles are specificity, overload, and progression. 

Specificity is a basic concept where an individual is to train in a specific manner to produce a specific response or action. In practical terms, if someone wanted to design a program around strengthening their hamstring muscles, they would have specific exercises to match the required demands. Exercises that could occur in this scenario may be the deadlift, glute bridges, or Nordic curls. In an athlete’s sense, specificity can relate directly to the sport by mimicking movement patterns or becoming a supplementary addition to improve strength levels that can transition to the pitch and aim to enhance performance.  

Overload is about assigning training or sessions of greater intensity than the athlete is accustomed to. Without the stimulus overload, even a well-designed program will limit the athlete’s ability to seek improvement (2). An example of progressive overload can be changing the load a person is lifting to make it harder or adding in more strength days per week. Another manipulation could be made by adding more exercises to the session or tweaking the rest periods in between. Finding the balance between overloading and not overtraining is vital. If a program is correctly designed, it will challenge the individual enough to enhance strength improvements but consider required recovery/rest days.  

Progression has a methodical approach to prevent potential overuse or injury from occurring. It may seem like you can make a big leap by lifting a heavy load one week compared to the last, but jumping straight into it without a designated plan can have many disadvantages, with injury being at the forefront. Lifting heavy loads will provide an important overload, but not at the expense of sacrificing proper technique and form. Progression should, when applied correctly promote long-term training benefits (2). 

What are the Benefits of Strength Training?

Strength training provides a wide range of benefits to individuals regardless of age or experience level. It has been shown to increase muscle size and strength, help stabilise joints and ligaments, improve neurological signalling, aid in power mechanism and speed as well as many studies detailing the importance it can provide for mental health. Research has shown that doing strength training can reduce symptoms of various chronic diseases like arthritis, depression, type-2 diabetes, osteoporosis, sleep disorders and heart disease. In addition, some research demonstrates that strength training in older adults with functional limitations can reduce falls (5, 6). A long-term study conducted by Nelson et al. noted that women aged 50-70 years old who participated in strength training twice a week for one year became stronger, increased their muscle mass, improved their balance, and reported better bone density in comparison to the control group who did no strength training at all (6). 

Misconceptions of Strength Training?

A few studies have investigated the preconception of strength training about males’ and females’ perceived importance of it. A common belief today is that many females have a negative preconception of strength training for multiple reasons. Some believe that by engaging in strength training they will add a lot of muscle mass and become aesthetically bigger, while others believe that is it not necessarily important for them to participate in whether they are an athlete or not. Poiss et al (2004) surveyed this exact issue at the collegiate level by exploring the perceived rates of the importance of strength training and found that male athletes were found to be significantly more likely to consider weight training as essential to their sport-specific training than females (8). Similarly, Bennie et al (2020) completed a comprehensive study, spanning 28 countries in Europe and found that 19.8% of men participated in strength training activities ≥2 times a week compared with 15% of women (9). 

A common misconception is that cardio-based training is the best and only way to lose weight or specifically, body fat percentage, and strength training does not do this. Excessive body fat can be associated with a major risk for general health and can lead to life-threatening conditions or diseases. Several studies (11, 12, 13) have found that increasing resistance or strength training can positively affect body fat percentage alongside managing obesity or metabolic disorders (12). In line with these findings, a study that compared endurance to strength training over 10 weeks in male physically active participants, concluded that although resistance training alone may improve muscular strength and basal metabolic rate (BMR), and endurance training alone will increase aerobic power and decrease body fat percentage, a combined approach is optimal (10). 

NB! An important thing to note is that muscle has a higher density than fat. If an individual implements strength training into their routine they could find an increase in weight (kg) however their fat stores have decreased, leading to reduced limb circumference and a change in body composition. Checking body fat percentage is a better metric that a person may look to improve. To summarise, a bodybuilder and an individual with obesity could have the same BMI, but the bodybuilder would have a higher percentage of muscle mass than the individual with obesity, who will have a greater percentage of body fat.

How often should you strength train?

The amount of strength training required will depend ultimately on the goals. An athlete looking to focus on maximising strength to translate to their sport will have different goals compared to an athlete or individual who is returning from a serious injury and focusing on regaining baseline strength. An elderly person looking to keep a good foundation of strength to help with functional movement will have different goals than a bodybuilder looking to enhance hypertrophy. These different scenarios will elicit a different training need and therefore frequency, duration, and load needed. 

Various research alludes to differences in the frequency of strength training that should take place each week. Outside of sports performance, literature and article results can fluctuate from anywhere between 1-4 sessions per week as a general recommendation. Many studies will look at untrained, non-elite or recreational adults who engage in resistance training and often conclude direct strength improvements. In terms of experienced lifters, Lasevicius et al (2019) examined the difference in resistance-trained men by comparing 2 sessions a week to 3 sessions to determine if any significant differences were noted. The study concluded that although a significant difference was found between pre and post-test scores, there were no differences between the two groups and despite 2 or 3 training days per week, they both evoked similar responses (18). Contrastingly, other studies have found differences between groups when comparing 3 strength sessions a week to 6 sessions concerning the training volume per session (19). What does this mean? There is no exact science with how much strength training you should do as it will elicit various physiological responses for individuals at different time points. Strength training provides major benefits to health, so just getting started and remembering individualisation is key. 

Strength Training for Athletes 

There are multiple ways that strength training can be programmed, often, athletes will fall into a periodization model where it considers their competition fixtures throughout the season and looks to maximise strength at the right time. There are multiple tactics to do this, but with periodisation, a coach can manipulate loads based on the goals within a set cycle. An annual plan is usually put together at the start of a new season which incorporates the macro-cycle which is essentially looking at the bigger picture. What games are there, and how long is the pre-season, in-season, and off-season period in terms of weeks. Within the macrocycle, this is then broken down into a meso-cycle and then finally a micro-cycle. The micro-cycle is a short time that could equate to a week as an example, which provides details of how the exact strength sessions may look in terms of exercises, reps, sets etc. The meso-cycle sits in between both which looks at when strength training sessions may be added throughout the month with a potential focus attached to it. 

Figure 2. shows an example that Suchomel et al (2018) documented on periodisation with the various stages. The preparatory phase is typically the off-season where maximal strength can be focused on then as pre-season begins this will start to transition to strength-power training. During the season most sports will strip back on strength and replace it with technical or tactical training. Strength-power is imperative for the athletes to complete during the main season to keep them strong and ticking over.   The only difference is the load may be reduced and the session will be scheduled by the S&C team to promote enough recovery time before competitive games to avoid a decrease in performance. 

Figure 2.  An example of strength focuses during the preparatory and competitive phase (7). 

Common Strength Training Equipment

Strength training can be completed with various equipment or methods to stimulate a similar response. Examples include free weights, body weight movements, machines, and/or resistance/elastic bands. 

Bodyweight exercises

For a beginner, body-weight exercises are a great way to learn different movements and perfect form. A completely new beginner will likely find adaption through body-weight exercises as they have several advantages as noted above in the benefits of strength training. Not only do they target various muscle groups but there is the potential for lots of versatility. A plateau can occur when using strictly body weight exercises as an overload of a stimulus is limited in nature so other strength training methods are often added or advised to seek further improvement (6). These exercises or movements are great for people returning from injury or starting an activity for the first time. It is the foundation or building blocks to get people moving correctly before adding additional load. 

Free Weights

Dumbbells, kettlebells, or barbells can be used as free weights and as the name suggests, they are not attached to a machine. There are many advantages to using free weights and lots of exercises that can be progressed or regressed as necessary with them too. One main advantage is that by using free weights they force stabilisation, range of motion, and coordination. A back squat for example using a barbell will require a person to work their quadriceps in the concentric movement but they need to engage other muscles and the core to create the movement to be as efficient and smooth as possible. With free weights, an element of balance is needed so alongside strength gains these types of exercises can help improve balance and coordination as well.

Machines

Many different machines can be found in a gym setting that looks to isolate specific sets of muscle(s). For a beginner, machine exercises may be a great place to start as they are often user-friendly, and less technique is required in comparison to free weights. They provide isolated work and load to a specific area of the body which means any discrepancies or imbalances could be addressed by adding in machine movement. If imbalances are a problem, machines can become a potential hindrance if one muscle group or one side dominates or takes most of the force. For example, a leg press machine requires both feet to push against the resistance. If an individual has an obvious stronger side, they may find that one leg is working harder than the other, therefore, taking most of the weight. A recommendation would be to assess any potential imbalances or discrepancies an individual or athlete has before assigning a program as exercise selection can be manipulated. Machines could still be used if other exercises address the imbalances that were found. Often, a machine has less risk of getting the movement wrong and can move the body through the desired range of motion.

Read this article to find out more about free weights vs machines. 

Resistance Bands 

Resistance bands can be used to create tension or make movements more difficult as the muscles work to resist the pressure created. Resistance bands can come in all shapes and sizes with the strength of the band getting thicker which ultimately means it is harder to resist. Beginners can use bands as a good starting point and work their way up to harder bands as they become used to the tension. They are a great way for injured athletes to build up strength after rehabilitating from a knee ligament injury (14). One disadvantage to using resistance bands is it is hard to evoke the same resistance each time as it is purely subjective.

Strength Training vs Cardio

On a basic level, strength and cardio training play different roles, and have an obvious difference in that cardio training aims to improve oxygen efficiency whereas strength training adds stress to the muscle to gain strength. Going for a steady state long run versus completing heavy weight lifts in the gym will provoke different energy pathway responses. 

Our energy pathways will work together but depending on the activity we are doing, will depend on which energy system is working as the predominant source. Maximal strength, often, is where minimum reps are conducted but the load is extremely high. An example of this may be an athlete completing a 1 repetition maximum (RM) – 3 RM bench press. It is an intense few seconds of work where the body is heavily relying on the adenosine triphosphate-phosphocreatine (ATP-PCr) system to provide a high capacity of power through the stored ATP and PCr we have but it will only last a few seconds. Once this energy has been used, our body will then upregulate the anaerobic glycolysis which provides more energy, still at a high-power outlet, but not the same as the ATP-PCr. The benefit to the anaerobic glycolysis is the duration can be longer which will certainly help when we look to do strength training where it lasts more than a few seconds. In terms of cardio-based training, again, it will depend on the intensity and duration of the task to what energy system is in the driving seat. If a person were to do a long steady state run at the same speed, they would be utilising their aerobic capacity system as their predominant energy system. This will allow an individual to be able to work for a long period at a relatively low intensity. Even by utilising anaerobic energy pathway, we often rely on strong aerobic power for a quick recovery and regeneration between actions (15) 

Does Strength Training Burn Calories?

Having already established that strength training can have profound effects on an individual’s health it is important to note how strength training can and does burn calories. It is often associated that aerobic-based activities are the most effective for burning calories and improving cardiovascular fitness. By participating in regular muscle-building activities, the muscles are metabolically active and will therefore burn calories (16). Muscles require a lot of calories to function even at rest and strength training requires substantially more calories. With regular strength training, muscle mass will increase which increases your metabolism and therefore can lead to burning more calories at rest and throughout the day (17). 

Strength Training Examples. 

Strength training sessions will differ depending on your desired goal or outcome. The force-velocity curve in Figure 3 is based on your 1RM and the percentage you are working at. Working at the top of the y-axis shows that the weight is very heavy and maximal strength is the main goal whereas the furthest point along the x-axis has no more than 30% of your 1RM where you are focused on moving it quicker, but the load of course is lighter.

Figure 3. Force Velocity Curve.

A strength session can be a total body focus which encompasses movements accommodating a variety of muscle groups from both upper and lower. Some like to do a split, where they complete an upper-body session one day and a lower-body session the next. Another well-known spilt is something called the ‘push and pull’. An example of a push exercise is where the movement or weight is being pushed away from the body, such as a bench press, push-up, shoulder press or overhead press. As the word ‘pull’ insinuates the body is contracting muscles and pulling a force towards the body. Examples of a pull exercise could be pull-ups, lat pull down, bent-over rows or a deadlift. An example for a beginner is represented in Table 1 and specifically for a female football athlete in Table 2. These are noted as generic examples of how a strength session could look, but individuality must be considered when designing a programme to suit the needs, goals and preferences of the individual. 

Table 1. An example of a total body strength session for a beginner. 

*The individual will need to have a play around with a weight that they know they can get to around 12-15 reps but does not inhibit them reaching the desired amount, or it is not easy enough they can progress over 15 reps. 

Table 2. An example of a total body strength session for a female football athlete in the off-season during the summertime.

As an athlete, coach or practitioner interested in more specific elite athlete training, check out the article on training methods of elite-athletes.

Conclusion 

Strength usually refers to our ability to resist an external force and much literature urges the importance of regular strength training. It has been shown to increase muscle mass, provide stability to ligaments and joints, develop stronger bones, and help reduce the potential of various illnesses and diseases. There are multiple ways to engage in strength training exercises through machines, free weights, resistance bands or bodyweight movements. Strength training is imperative for everyone, not just athletes, and will help enhance overall quality of life with a regular structured routine.

The post Strength Training appeared first on Science for Sport.

1. Summary
2. Introduction
3. Overview of the nature of injuries in grappling sports 
4. Mechanism of Injury (MOI)
5. Risk Factors
6. Barriers & Facilitators of introducing injury prevention warm-up
7. Appraising evidence for warm-up intervention protocols
8. Conclusion 
9. Appendix
10. References

Summary

Grappling sports are becoming more popular, but with this injuries associated with grappling sports are on the rise. At present, no injury prevention warm-up (IPW) specifically addresses the requirements of grappling athletes. Using existing guidelines and frameworks from other sports and disciplines, this article proposes an IPW to meet the specific needs of the grappling athlete.

Introduction

Greco-Roman wrestling has been featured in the Olympic games since they started in 1896, with Catch wrestling being introduced in 1904 before being replaced by Freestyle wrestling in 1924. Regardless of the long history of the three sports, no injury-prevention warm-up has been published (1) despite poor warm-ups previously being cited as a common cause of injury in grappling sports (2). Additionally, there is currently no injury prevention warm-up (IPW) for other grappling sports such as Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) and Sambo. 

Overall injury rates for grappling sports can be up to 19.6 per 1000 hours of athlete exposure (AE) (3), with competition rates reaching 109 injuries/1000 AE (4). High injury recurrence rates have also been highlighted in grappling sports (5). Research has shown that the successful employment of warm-ups before sports can reduce athlete injury and recurrence rates (6, 7, 8). 

The Team-Sport Injury Prevention (TIP) cycle is a revised version of Flinch’s (2006) Translating Research into Injury Prevention Practice Framework (TRIPP). `TIP details the process of development of an evidence-based injury prevention programme. TIP identifies stages of designing an injury prevention programme as; (re)evaluate, identify, and intervene (9) (Figure 1). 

Figure 1. The Team-Sport Injury Prevention (TIP) cycle is a revised version of Flinch’s (2006) Translating Research into Injury Prevention Practice Framework (TRIPP) (9).

This review proposes an evidence-based injury prevention warm-up intervention to reduce injury incident rates in grappling sports. It will discuss the sites and types of injuries seen in wrestling, BJJ and Sambo, and the mechanism of injury (MOI) and barriers to delivery of an injury prevention warm-up. The approach to developing the IPW was to first assess the available research to establish the current injury situation in grappling sports, including the nature and frequency of injuries. Followed by the barriers and facilitators of introducing an injury prevention warm-up. Once the appraisal of the research literature was complete, an IPW was designed with the input of grappling researchers and practitioners.

Overview of the nature of injuries in grappling sports 

Incidence of injury

There are multiple injury surveillance data studies available for Freestyle wrestling. However, the injury incident rate (IR) does differ between samples, with overall IR being as low as 3.40 per 1000 hours of athlete exposure (AE) in British wrestlers (10) to 19.6 injuries/ 1000 AE seen in American collegiate male wrestlers (3). There is a paucity of published injury surveillance data for BJJ. However, two studies do report competition injury incident reporting rates ranging from 9.2 to 24.9 injuries/ 1000 AE (11. 12). This is much lower than rates seen in freestyle wrestling competitions, where rates range from 13.1 to 42.01/ 1000 AE (10, 13, 14, 15, 16).

Anatomical site of injuries and Type

Multiple Injury studies in BJJ have established that the Knee is the most commonly injured anatomical site, ranging between 20.8 to 81.1 % of all injuries occurring (5, 11, 12, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21). Two studies found hands and fingers to be the most frequent injuries in BJJ, followed by the Knee (22, 23, 24). In BJJ competitions the elbow was the most commonly injuries joint. However, the Knee had the highest incidence of medical diagnoses (11). None of the grapplers stated if injuries came from Gi-based BJJ or No-Gi BJJ. The head, neck and trunk were the leading injury sites present at American Emergency Departments for BJJ between 2008 to 2015 (25). BJJ Studies that reported injury type stated sprains as the leading diagnosis (21, 24, 26).

In several American collegiate wrestling injury surveillance studies, the Knee has been reported as the most frequent injury in competition and practice (16.7 % to 30.4 %) (3, 13, 14, 16, 27). However, this differs in American high school wrestlers, where the head/face (practices = 19.9 %, competitions = 21.4 %) and shoulder/clavicle (practices = 14.1 %, competitions = 21.0 %) were the most common injury sites (16). Data obtained from various demographics has established knee strains/sprains as the most frequent injury wrestlers (14, 28, 29).

There are still grappling arts with no research data available, such as Catch Wrestling. Others, such as Sambo and Japanese jiu-jitsu, have limited research. Blach et al. (2022) (30) Joint study of spinal injuries in Sambo reported that 53 % of all reported spinal injuries occurred in the lumbar region. In traditional Jiu-jitsu, the knee (29.4 %) (31) is stated as the most frequent injury site, while minor contusions, sprains, and muscle injuries (54 %) were the leading injury type (32). 

Greco-Roman studies often show differences in the leading injury sites varying from the Neck, Ribs and Shoulder (33, 34, 35). In competition lactations to the face are the leading injury site and type (62%) (36). Mooren et al. (2023) (37) systematic review of Injuries during Judo Tournaments stated that the majority of studies reported the Head and Neck as the leading injury site. The leading time loss injury site was the knee, and the leading injury type was joint sprains followed by contusions and lacerations. Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) ruptures have been reported as the primary injury type for time loss with 32 % of all ACLs taking 6-9 months for grapplers to return to play (38).

The review of the available research shows that the knee is the most commonly injured site in Freestyle wrestling (3, 13, 14, 16, 27), BJJ (5, 11, 12, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21) and traditional Jiu-jitsu (31)  and the leading time loss injury in Judo (37, 38). Ligament strains were reported as the leading injury type in Freestyle wrestling, BJJ (21, 24, 26) and Judo (37) and second in traditional Jiu-jitsu (32). In Greco-Roman Wrestling and Judo competitions, the grappling sports that do not allow leg attacks, the head, neck and trunk are the leading injury sites (33, 34, 35, 36, 37). 

Mechanism of Injury (MOI)

Freestyle wrestling research is unanimous in stating that takedowns were the leading MOI, resulting in 39 % to 54.3 % of all reported injuries (10, 13, 14, 16, 27, 39). The majority of these happened during practice sparring 37.5 % to 65.1 % (10, 13, 14, 27). This was also seen in BJJ, where studies reported that 74-77.6 % of injuries happened during training (17, 21). It was also established that submissions (29.7 %) were the leading MOI, followed by takedowns (26.4 %). An opponent attempting an armbar was the leading submission to cause injury, and the triangle submission was the leading cause of injury for grapplers attempting a submission on their opponent (17). The MOI has also been shown to differ between ages with one study reporting the leading MOI for adolescents as Tumbling/ Trauma and takedowns as the lead MOI for adults and masters (40). In BJJ competitions, the armbar was the most common MOI (28.8 %), followed by takedowns (13.9 %) (11). 

Sandeep and Haridas Kuloor’s (2017) (35) study of Greco-roman wrestlers states that most injuries accrued with contact with the opponent. However, it does not go any further as to what the contact was or why it occurred. A systematic review of competition injuries in Judo found that 50 to 85.2 % of injuries happened during Tachi-waza (Standing techniques) (37). The most frequent method of MOI in standing techniques is being thrown, followed by performing a throw then grip fighting (41, 42, 43). The available research shows that takedowns and throws are the leading aetiology in all styles of wrestling and Judo, with BJJ research fluctuating between takedowns and submissions.

Risk Factors

Compared to many sports physical risk factors in grappling is under-researched. However, some studies may help the design of the IPW. In youth freestyle wrestling a relationship has been found between reduced flexibility and an increased rate of skeletal and muscular-tendinous injuries (44). A link between bone injuries and isometric strength was also established (44). In Judo and BJJ interlimb asymmetries in strength, power and flexibility in the knee, shoulder and hip have been associated with injury risk (45, 46). In Judo breakfall techniques are heavily researched (47). Although no injury incident or prevalence studies exist, ample studies show that grapplers who show incorrect falling techniques demonstrate poor collision biomechanics associated with head and neck injuries (47). Practicing correct falling techniques has been shown to lower these dysfunctions (47).

Research has highlighted multiple factors that contribute to increased injury risk. Studies have shown that injury incident rates increase with age in BJJ, Freestyle wrestling and Judo (10, 17, 37, 48, 49). Multiple BJJ studies have shown females to be at greater risk of injury (5, 40). However, studies in Freestyle and Judo have presented mixed results for gender injury incident rates (37, 50). Grappling experience and training volume have also been established as risk factors (10, 26, 40, 48). However, studies have shown that grapplers with more experience train more times a week and for longer durations (49) meaning that the increased injury incident rates in experienced grapplers may come from increased training volume.

Although research into risk factors is lacking in grappling sports the available studies suggest that strength, power, and flexibility affect injury incident and prevalence rates. The decline in these physical attributes seen with age may be the reason that injury incident rates increase with age (51, 52). An exercise selection with evidence of increasing strength, power and flexibility will be included in the IPW.

Armbars and Upper-body injury

One of the leading MOIs in BJJ is the armbar (11, 17). The armbar is a submission that involves grapplers hyperextending their opponent’s elbow joint by inflicting a posterior-to-anterior (P/A) force to the humerus and an anterior-to-posterior (A/P) force to the forearm (53, 54). Almeida et al. (2017) (54) study on the patterns and mechanisms of armbar injuries stated that force caused by the eccentric contraction of the forearm flexor muscles, leading to injury of the dynamic and static medial stabilisers of the elbow. The chances of dislocation and distal humerus shear fractures expand as the valgus moment increases when the elbow is at full extension (55, 56). Due to the level of force that can be produced, it is unlikely that the IPW will have any impact in reducing injuries from armbars; instead, sparring etiquette and the correct paring of sparring partners with similar weight and experience levels.

The head and neck are leading injury sites in Judo and Greco-Roman wrestling with the direct impact of the head on the mat being stated as a frequent MOI (47). Research in the elucidation of the causes of head injury in judo has shown that grapplers landing from unexpected throws (eyes closed) exhibited greater maximum angular acceleration of the head compared to expected throws (eyes open) (57). The delayed reaction to a push and delayed contraction of the neck muscles has also been linked to the increased risk of head injury (57). It was also seen that anterior cervical flexion strength had no impact on angular acceleration (57). Research on the Ukemi break-fall technique has shown that it can dramatically reduce peak resultant translational acceleration of the head that is associated with an acute subdural haematoma and coronal rotation that has been linked to diffuse axonal injury (58, 59, 60).

Research into neck strengthening exercises in the sport of Rugby Union and Mixed martial arts has shown a reduction in cervical muscle injuries and sports-based concussions (61, 62). Neck strength has been associated with Peak Angular Momentum of Neck Extension (PAMNE) (47). PAMNE is lower in experienced judoka when compared to novices when performing break-falls (63). As neck strength was not tested in the study it is unclear if PAMNE was lower due to better break-fall technique or from neck strength. It appears necessary to include both break-fall drills and neck strengthening exercises in the IPW. 

Leg attacks and Lower-body injury

Takedowns have been verified as the most utilised method for scoring points in competitions and are therefore practised regularly in grappling sparring and drilling (64, 65, 66). It has been established that many BJJ, freestyle, and catch wrestling takedowns, most noticeable leg attacks, involve knee torsion, lateral knee displacement and excessive force transmitted in the joint in the execution phase (67, 68, 69). Research in ACL and injuries states that the primary kinetic mechanisms are valgus forces, compressive anterior force of the quadriceps, and short axial compressive forces to the knee that cause anterior translation of the tibia (39). These variables contribute to the most frequent component of ACL strain, proximal tibia anterior shear (70, 71). The MCL is commonly injured through coronal plane impact merged with rotational forces (72, 73). The kinetic forces seen in pivoting movement, rapid deceleration, and forced hyperextension are chief mechanisms in combined knee ligament injuries (74).

These MOI align with the mechanisms of leg-based takedowns frequently performed in BJJ and Various types of wrestling. Additionally, it has been observed that freestyle wrestlers rely predominantly on leg attacks and not throws, as seen in Greco-Roman wrestling and Judo (64, 75). This is due to rulesets, as it is not permitted to grab the legs in Greco-roman wrestling and Judo. This has led to different defence strategies and postures between grappling styles that can attack the legs and those that cannot. Grappling styles that permit leg attacks, such as BJJ, freestyle and catch wrestling, demonstrate greater A/P excursion of the centre of pressure and greater knee flexion that results in significantly increased joint angles in the transverse and frontal planes at the knee and ankle due to the lowered stance needed to attack and defence the lower limbs (42, 76). This may contribute to the higher percentage of knee and lower limb injuries and higher injury prevalence rates seen in freestyle wrestling (34, 36, 77).

As suplexes are not permitted in BJJ (78), it can be presumed that the majority of takedowns are attacks to the legs and not throws, as seen in Greco-Roman wrestling and Judo (33, 37). This leads to the conclusion that grappling sports that allow leg attacks share similar MOI and can be separated from those that are not permitted to perform leg attacks. Unlike technique drilling for head injuries and coaching advisement for submission injuries there are many IPW that are designed to lower injuries to the knee joint. Research has shown that knee-focused IPW can successfully lower injuries in contact sports (79,80). Exercises from these IPW that are most relevant to grappling, can be included in the current IPW.

Current recommendations to reduce injury

Grindstaff & Potach (2006) (81) reviewed wrestling injuries and suggested exercises to be incorporated into a strength and conditioning (S&C) programme. This resource is useful for S&C coaches and provides a framework for a gym-based injury prevention programme. However, many of the exercise suggestions involved gym equipment that would not be possible to use for a team warm-up. However, some bodyweight exercises, such as wheelbarrow holds and bear crawls, may be adapted to fill a warm-up format. Von Gerhardt et al. (2023) (82) designed an injury-prevention warm-up for Judo called the Injury Prevention and Performance Optimization Netherlands (IPPON). It is the only published injury prevention warm-up tailored for a grappling sport. However, it focused purely on the injuries and MOIs seen in Judo. However, the IPPON intervention did not significantly reduce the overall and severe injury prevalence.

Injury prevention warm-ups have successfully reduced injury rates and precursors to injury in sports such as Football, Basketball and rugby (83, 84, 85, 86). Following a similar systematic evidence-based approach as these programs have previously, an effective injury prevention warm-up protocol for grappling arts may be designed. 

Barriers & Facilitators of introducing injury prevention warm-up

Barriers to Injury Prevention

There are some frequently reported barriers to compliance with injury prevention programmes in sport. The Minnig et al. (2022) (87) review of the barriers to the adoption of evidence-based injury prevention programmes states perceived time, financial cost, coaches lacking confidence in their ability to implement it, and the inclusion of exercises that were difficult or confusing to follow. Studies that were not included in the review stated similar barriers such as not knowing what to do, not having been previously injured, not having the correct equipment and a lack of knowledge from coaches on how to implement the programme (88, 89, 90).

Facilitators of Injury Prevention

Research on the barriers and facilitators of injury prevention programmes has stated coach education is a major contributor to improving compliance (89, 90, 91).  The British Wrestling Association (BWA) has agreed to act as a facilitator for the injury prevention programme. This encompasses embedding IPW into the British wrestling coaching course, as seen in FIFA coaching licence courses and the FIFA 11+ IPW. The BWA will also make the IPP warm-up available as an online continuous professional development course (CPD) for international grappling coaches. 

To overcome other barriers such as lack of time (87, 90), costs (92), scheduling (93), and equipment (89) the IPW is designed to last 15 to 20 mins and will take place at the start of scheduled training sessions or completions. The IPW will not need any equipment and can be implemented by coaches to minimise the cost of hiring S&C coaches or physiotherapists. It has been stated that athletes and coaches perceive performance increases as a higher motivation than injury prevention (94). Research has shown that associating injury prevention programmes with increased performance benefits increases compliance rates (95, 96, 97). Due to this, the IPW will be designed in the Raise, Activate/ Mobilise and Potentiate (RAMP) (98) structure will be used as it was designed to optimise performance preparation (98). The IPW also includes Plyometric and  Post-activation Potentiation Enhancement (PAPE) techniques that have been shown to increase athletic performance (96, 97, 99).

Appraising evidence for warm-up intervention protocols 

Duration and protocol 

A frequently reported barrier to injury prevention programmes is perceived time and scheduling (87, 90, 93), so keeping the IPW protocol compact is a requirement that may help with compliance from coaches and grapplers. A 2016 systematic review on the effect of team warm-ups by Silva et al. (2018) (100) found that a warm-up protocol of 15 minutes was the optimal period to increase explosive performance. In terms of reducing injury kinematic and kinetic dysfunctions associated with injury risk factors and reduced injury incidence, several IPWs lasting between 15 to 20 minutes have been shown to be effective (101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106). Studies have shown a compliance rate of a minimum of 2 times a week is needed for IPW of this duration to be successful (101, 106, 107, 108).

The RAMP warm-up protocol has been successfully used in combat and contact sports such as Rugby league and boxing (99, 109). The rationale for the activities included in the IPW is formatted in the structure of the RAMP protocol.

Raise

The raise section aims to elevate body temperature, heart rate, respiration rate, blood flow, and joint fluid viscosity via low-intensity activities (98). Reviews have shown that effective warm-up protocols increase the intensity until a heart rate similar to that of a competitive environment is reached (100). Research has recorded an average heart rate of 180 to 182 bpm in grappling matches and can reach a maximum of 190 – 200 (110, 111). Exercises such as high knees, heels to glutes, and head rolls have increased dynamic mobility of the spine and peripheral joints (84). Meanwhile, rolling has been shown to increase proprioception and postural control (112, 113). Additionally, Grapplers need the ability to produce a rate of force development (RFD) and acceleration for movements such as takedowns (69). Shuffle sprints will help with the RFD (114) and aid in increasing HR.

Activate

The activate section focuses on identifying the key muscles needed for grappling and then using a selection of dynamic movements to activate them (115). The physical demands of grappling involve all major muscle groups (116, 117). This section of the IPW will start with walking lunges with trunk rotation. EMG research has demonstrated that forward lunges increased activation in the Vastus Mediali and gluteus Medius and have been used in peer-reviewed injury prevention and performance warm-ups (118, 119, 120). The lunges will be followed by bear crawls, which have been used in wrestling and functional training settings to activate the wrists, pelvis and lower limbs (121, 122). Sports-specific movements have been shown to be effective in previous injury prevention programmes (123). The wheelbarrow position mimics wrestling positions that require the grappler to support their body weight with their upper extremities (81). Research using EMG has shown that press-up variations such as the wheelbarrow exercise activated the lower trapezius and the serratus anterior (124). Press-ups have been demonstrated to increase upper body and core activation (125, 126, 127) and have been used effectively in injury prevention warm-ups (128). Hindu press-ups involve a significant degree of trunk and hip flexion that mimics the 110 degrees of trunk/hip flexion seen in the biomechanical analysis of a sprawl (129).

Much like the Hindu press-up, Hindu squats are commonly used in various wrestling styles. The squat has been successfully used to lower injury prevention and increase performance in the FIFA 11 + protocol (8, 130). The Hindu squat also allows grapplers to move into greater degrees of knee flexion needed to perform movements such as the double leg takedown (147 degrees) (129). Research has shown that many head, neck and trunk injuries in BJJ are a result of landing (25). It has been recommended that increased training in landing techniques will aid in preventing landing and fall injuries as previously demonstrated in Judo (25, 47, 63). Short-term breakfall practice has been shown to improve electromyography (EMG) activity in Stenocleidomastoid, External Oblique and Rectus Abdominis muscles (131).

Mobilise

The lack of mobility has been acknowledged as an injury precursor in grappling sports (17). Additionally, it has been shown that grappling requires athletes to exert force in large degrees of an athlete’s range of movement (ROM). This can be seen in suplexes in Greco-Roman wrestling (132), throws in Judo (47), bridges in Swiss wrestling (133) and shooting for takedowns in BJJ and freestyle wrestling (69, 129). Biomechanical analysis of Greco-roman wrestling has shown that many trajectories from throws, takedowns and presses follow Circular and Helicoidal paths, resulting in hip and spinal rotation (67). Therefore, the IPW adopts the scorpion exercise to increase ROM in these areas. Neck mobilisations are also required as research has shown that neck strengthening reduces cervical injuries in combat sports (62) as well as sports-related concussions (61).

Potentiate

The potentiate stage aims to increase activity to maximal intensity in preparation for competition (98). This often includes techniques such as PAPE (99). This technique is primarily used to improve sports performance and the focus of the IPW is to reduce athlete injury. However, it has been shown that coaches and athletes perceive performance as a higher priority than injury prevention (94). Flinch’s  (2006) (134)  proposal of the Translating Research into Injury Prevention Practice Framework (TRIPP) states that only research adopted by sports participants, their coaches, and sporting bodies can prevent injuries. By including performance aspects in the IPW, compliance levels are anticipated to increase. The potentiate section of the IPW starts with plyometric exercises. Plyometric training in adolescents has also been evidenced to increase neural drive to the agonist’s muscles, reactive strength stretches, shorting cycle efficiency, fascicle length, and Vastus Lateralis pennation angle and aid in the development of muscle activation strategies (135, 136, 137). PAPE exercises such as plyometric press-ups have shown increases (4.9 %) in peak power output (138).

This section also includes partner contact drills. Wrestling and contact drills have also been recommended as injury prevention strategies for contact injuries in Rugby League and Union (139, 140). The IPW concludes with a partner reaction drill designed by the British wrestling team’s coaching staff. This involves grapplers performing takedown defensive and attacking movements as they react to their partner’s cues. Visual processing, visual fields, and visual reaction times are essential to the performance of numerous sports and play a role in athletic injuries (141, 142). The partnered drills also allow grapplers to raise their heart rate after an anticipated drop in the mobilise section.

Conclusion

This is the first evidence-based IPW for grappling sports and may act as a resource for coaches of all grappling arts. It provides athletes and coaches with a warm-up that can be performed before grappling practice and competition. The IPW will be embedded into the British Wrestling Association’s (BWA) coaching courses and as a continuous professional development course (CPD) option for international grappling coaches. Further studies can be undertaken to verify the IPW effectiveness in reducing biomechanical injury risk factors, injury incident rates and performance benefits.

Appendix

Table 1. IPW with rationale and coaching points

The post Injury prevention warm-up in grappling sports appeared first on Science for Sport.

1. Introduction
2. What is Muscle Memory?
3. How does Muscle Memory Work?
4. How do you develop Muscle Memory?
5. How long does Muscle Memory last?
6. How long does it take for Muscle Memory to come back?
7. Can Muscle Memory be lost?
8. How to improve Muscle Memory?
9. How many repetitions does it take to develop Muscle Memory?
10. Conclusion

Introduction

Muscle memory is the result of a fascinating interplay between neurons, muscles, and practice—a phenomenon that transforms conscious effort into effortless mastery. It is intricately embedded in the complexities of the brain and body.  It acts as the architect enabling us to execute tasks with apparent innate precision. Think about the first time you struggled to tie your shoelaces or play a musical instrument; fast forward through practice, and those once-challenging motions become second nature. Muscle memory plays a role in these fascinating phenomena.  This article explores the marvels of muscle memory, from the firing of neurons to the reinforcement of neural pathways; join us on a journey into the depths of how the brain sculpts the blueprint for expertise through muscle memory.

What is Muscle Memory?

Muscle memory, despite its name, is not about muscle but is rather about the brain. When we learn a new skill or practice a particular movement, the brain creates neural pathways and connections that control the associated muscle groups [1, 4]. These connections become more efficient and well-coordinated through repetition, performance of the task with increased accuracy and ease [6].

Muscle memory is a complex process that involves both the brain and the body’s muscles and nervous system. It is a fascinating concept that has intrigued athletes, musicians, and professionals across various fields. It’s the reason behind the remarkable improvement in performance that comes with practice and repetition [2, 4]. This article delves into the science behind muscle memory, its practical applications, and how understanding this phenomenon can help athletes excel in their chosen pursuits [3].

How does Muscle Memory work? 

The process of muscle memory involves a series of complex neurological events within the brain, and it can be broken down into several stages. Here’s a detailed look at what happens inside the brain during the development and execution of muscle memory [3];

1. Learning Phase

Neural Pathway Formation: When a new skill or task is first learnt, the brain begins to create new neural pathways. These pathways connect regions involved in motor planning and execution. The primary motor cortex is a key player in initiating and controlling voluntary movements [5, 6].

Synaptic Changes: Learning involves strengthening the connections (synapses) between neurons. As movements are practiced, these synaptic connections become more efficient, allowing signals to travel more quickly and reliably along the neural pathways [5, 6].

2. Repetition and Practice

Myelination: With repeated practice, the neural pathways become more insulated with myelin, a fatty substance that speeds up the transmission of signals. Thicker myelin sheaths enhance the efficiency of communication between neurons, allowing for smoother and faster execution of movements [2, 5, 6].

Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum Involvement: The basal ganglia and cerebellum play significant roles during repetitive practice. The basal ganglia contribute to skill learning and the automation of movements, while the cerebellum refines and coordinates motor patterns, ensuring precision and timing [5, 6].

3. Automatisation

Transfer from Conscious to Automatic Processing: As the skill becomes more familiar, the process transitions from conscious, intentional control to more automatic and subconscious control. This shift involves changes in the involvement of different brain regions, with increased reliance on the basal ganglia and cerebellum for well-coordinated and efficient movements [1, 5, 6].

Reduction in Frontal Lobe Activity: The prefrontal cortex, responsible for decision-making and conscious control, may become less active as the skill is automated. This allows the skill to be performed more effortlessly and with less conscious effort [4, 5, 6].

4. Feedback and Adjustment

Sensory Feedback: The brain continuously receives feedback from sensory systems, including proprioception (awareness of body position), vision, and touch, during the execution of the skill. This feedback helps the brain make real-time adjustments to improve accuracy and consistency [5, 6].

Hippocampal Involvement: The hippocampus, involved in memory and learning, may play a role in the consolidation of motor memories during this phase, contributing to the long-term retention of the skill [5, 6].

5. Retention and Recall

Long-Term Memory Storage: The well-established neural pathways and strengthened synaptic connections contribute to the long-term storage of the skill in memory [1, 5, 6].

Retrieval Process: When the skill is later  recalled and performed, the brain efficiently retrieves the stored motor patterns and executes the movement with a high degree of accuracy, often without the need for conscious thought [5, 6].

6. Challenges and Adaptation

Neuroplasticity and Adaptability: The brain’s plasticity allows it to adapt to changes. If there are errors or bad habits in the learned skill, the brain remains adaptable, and with conscious effort and retraining, it can modify the neural pathways to correct and optimise the movement [5, 6]. 

How do you develop Muscle Memory?

Muscle memory is a complex process involving neuromuscular adaptations, motor unit recruitment, synaptic plasticity, myelin formation, muscle fibre adaptations, and a cognitive component. Repeating specific movements optimises communication between the brain and muscles, establishing neural pathways [6, 7]. Motor unit recruitment enhances coordination, while synaptic plasticity strengthens connections between neurons. Myelin formation improves nerve signal transmission, and muscle fibre adaptations include structural and biochemical changes [12]. Cognitive processes, such as conscious practice and visualisation, contribute to muscle memory. Repetition and consistency are crucial for developing muscle memory, resulting in more efficient neural pathways and improved performance over time [8].

How long does Muscle Memory last? 

Muscle memory, in the context of motor skills and physical activities, does not have a fixed duration. The term “muscle memory” is somewhat misleading because it’s not an actual memory stored in the muscles but rather a retention of motor patterns in the nervous system. The duration of muscle memory depends on various factors, including the complexity of the skill, the intensity and duration of previous training, and the individual’s overall health and fitness level [6].

Here are some key points to consider;

Retention Period – Basic motor patterns and simple skills may be retained for a shorter duration, while complex movements developed through extensive training may persist longer [6, 9].

Consistency of Practice – Regular practice reinforces and maintains muscle memory. If practice stops, associated muscle memory may gradually fade [6, 9].

Relearning Speed – Despite diminished muscle memory, relearning a skill is often faster than learning it from scratch due to the quicker reactivation of previous neural pathways [6, 9].

Skill Complexity – Intricate movements or precise coordination may require more consistent practice to maintain muscle memory [6, 9].

Individual Differences – Retention varies among individuals, influenced by factors like age, genetics, and overall health [6, 9].

Periodic reinforcement through practice is crucial for maintaining muscle memory. Neural pathways associated with skill may weaken over time without regular practice, but with renewed practice, these pathways can be reactivated, enabling faster relearning. Muscle memory’s duration is not uniform and depends on individual circumstances and the nature of the skill or activity [6, 8, 9].

How long does it take for Muscle Memory to come back?

The time it takes for muscle memory to “come back” can vary widely depending on several factors, including the complexity of the skill, the duration and intensity of previous training, and individual differences. Here are some general considerations [9, 11];

Previous Training Duration – If there was extensive training in a particular skill or activity, muscle memory for that skill may come back more quickly. The longer and more consistently a skill was  practiced in the past, the more ingrained the neural pathways associated with that skill [9, 10].

Skill Complexity – Simple motor skills may come back faster than complex movements. Basic movements that are part of daily activities or fundamental exercises might return relatively quickly, while more intricate skills may require more time and practice [9, 12].

Consistency of Practice – If  practice was consistent before taking a break, muscle memory is more likely to come back faster. Regular and repetitive practice helps reinforce neural pathways [9, 12].

Relearning Speed – Muscle memory often involves a faster relearning process compared to learning a skill for the first time. The neural pathways associated with the skill may still exist, making it easier for the body to reacquire movement [9, 12].

Individual Factors – Individual differences, such as age, genetics, and overall health, can influence the speed at which muscle memory returns. Younger individuals and those with a history of physical activity may find it easier to regain muscle memory [9, 12].

Mental Rehearsal and Visualisation – Engaging in mental rehearsal and visualisation of the skill can also contribute to the reactivation of muscle memory. While not a substitute for physical practice, mental practice can enhance the relearning process [9, 12].

It’s important to note that there is no one-size-fits-all answer, and the time it takes for muscle memory to come back can vary from person to person and from skill to skill. Consistent and targeted practice is generally the key to reactivating muscle memory efficiently. Starting with gradual reintroduction and progressively increasing the complexity and intensity of practice can be a strategic approach to facilitate the return of muscle memory [9, 11, 12].

Can Muscle Memory be lost?

Muscle memory is influenced by the frequency and duration of practice, and its effectiveness diminishes over time without regular engagement [8, 9, 12]. If a skill is not practised, the neural connections associated with it may undergo decay, leading to a decline in muscle memory. Complex skills are more susceptible to loss than simple movements. Introducing new activities can potentially interfere with existing muscle memory [1, 10].

Age and individual differences also play a role in the retention of muscle memory. The positive aspect is that weakened muscle memory can often be reactivated or relearned more quickly than initial learning through consistent practice [9, 10]. To maintain muscle memory, regular engagement is crucial, as the capacity for relearning is often greater than the initial learning process. In essence, while muscle memory is not permanently lost, its strength and efficiency diminish without consistent practice, emphasising the importance of ongoing engagement to maintain and reinforce muscle memory [3, 12].

How to improve Muscle Memory?

Improving muscle memory involves consistent and targeted practice to strengthen neural pathways [1]. Key strategies include repetitive and consistent practice, progressively increasing skill complexity, focused and deliberate practice, mental rehearsal through visualisation, starting with slow and controlled movements, maintaining correct technique, seeking feedback for analysis and adjustments, introducing practice variability, allowing sufficient rest and recovery, ensuring long-term consistency, practising in real-life contexts for transferability, and using feedback tools like mirrors or video recordings for real-time corrections [12]. Patience and dedication are essential for the gradual process of building and maintaining muscle memory across various physical activities [5].

How many repetitions does it take to develop Muscle Memory? 

The number of repetitions needed for muscle memory varies based on factors like skill complexity, individual differences, and repetition quality [14]. Simple movements may require fewer repetitions, while precise and controlled practice enhances effectiveness [15]. Factors like genetics, age, and fitness level influence an individual’s ability to develop muscle memory. Consistent and frequent practice is crucial for solidifying neural pathways.

The initial learning phase may involve a steeper curve, and introducing practice variations contributes to comprehensive muscle memory development [5][14]. Gradually increasing intensity over time and considering skill transferability also impacts repetition needs. Overall, there’s no universal repetition count for muscle memory – instead, consistent, focused, and quality practice over time is key for optimal development [12, 13, 14].

Conclusion

In conclusion, muscle memory is a remarkable phenomenon rooted in the intricate interplay between the brain and body, enabling mastery of tasks through repetitive practice. It involves complex neurological events, from the formation of neural pathways during the learning phase to the automatisation of skills and eventual retention and recall. The duration of muscle memory varies based on factors like skill complexity, consistency of practice, and individual differences, with regular engagement being crucial for maintenance.

Reactivation of muscle memory after a break depends on factors like previous training duration, skill complexity, and mental rehearsal. While muscle memory can diminish without practice, it is not permanently lost, and relearning is often quicker than initial learning. Improving muscle memory involves strategic practices, such as repetition, progressive overload, focused practice, and feedback incorporation. The number of repetitions required for muscle memory development is influenced by factors like skill complexity, individual differences, and repetition quality, emphasising the importance of consistent and focused practice over time.

When embarking on a fitness journey or recovering from an injury, it’s essential to seek the expertise of a physiotherapy clinic for guidance and assistance in building muscle memory. These professionals are trained to assess your specific needs, create personalised exercise plans, and provide hands-on techniques to optimise your muscle function. Their guidance ensures that you engage in exercises tailored to your condition, promoting effective muscle memory development and reducing the risk of injury.

The post Muscle Memory appeared first on Science for Sport.

1. Summary
2. What is Exercise Science?
3. What Jobs can you expect to get with an Exercise Science degree?
4. What does an Exercise Scientist do?
5. Is Exercise Science a growing industry?
6. What is the difference between a Sports Scientist and an Exercise Scientist?
7. What is the difference between a Physiotherapist and an Exercise Scientist?
8. Best Universities to study Exercise Science in the World? 
9. Conclusion

Summary

Exercise science is a popular subject to study at college or university. It can lead to numerous career paths depending on your areas of interest. Is exercise science the right degree for you? If you aren’t sure, no problem! This article gives further insight into what exercise science is as well as relevant career information to help you decide.

What is Exercise Science?

When it comes to your health and physical longevity, exercise is the most important aspect. Benefits of exercise include improved bone mineral density and muscle strength, reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases, improved brain health, improved immune response, and weight management to name a few.   Exercise science is a sub-field of kinesiology which is essentially the gross study of human movement and athletics in everyday life. Exercise science focuses on how the human body responds and adapts to exercise and the mechanisms that are at play. 

While there are multiple layers to this, it is the science behind movement and how movement pertains to fitness, exercise, and overall health. It utilises a scientific approach to how the human body interacts to help clients live healthier lives. Current coursework within this degree includes areas of anatomy, biomechanics, sports psychology, motor development, nutrition, and exercise physiology. These courses build upon one another and are integrated to impact the health and fitness space (1).

What modules will you take towards an Exercise Science Degree?

As students progress within the Exercise Science degree, they take a variety of modules geared towards the body and body systems along with additional courses that you can apply. Some of these include anatomy and physiology, biology, chemistry, and physics. These science modules will lay the foundation for understanding the complexity of the human body and how it functions. Additional modules outside of the basic sciences geared towards the exercise science degree may include kinesiology courses like biomechanics, exercise physiology, as well as strength and conditioning. Undergraduates are also required to learn about ethics, research methods, and data science.

Undergraduates often undertake a placement as part of their degree requirements. Positions can range from working with elite sports teams to placements within a medical facility to working as a research assistant. Undergraduates will be encouraged to find a position within their field of interest and often placement can lead to an offer of internship or employment with the placement provider. Placements can also be useful to rule out areas that undergraduates are interested in but may be unsure of suitability. 

What jobs can you expect to get with an Exercise Science Degree?

The field of exercise science involves the application of elements of kinesiology as well as physiology to develop exercise programs to improve individuals’ health and fitness. This can be done through careers in fitness facilities as well as medical and research opportunities

Exercise scientist is a broad term used to describe individuals working across many sectors with an undergraduate degree in related fields. As such, depending on specialty, salaries vary quite substantially. In the UK, salaries range from £20,000 to £60,000 (3); in the US the median salary for an exercise scientist is $51,350 (6); and in Australia, the salary for an exercise scientist is between $47, 525 and $75,873 (4).

Fitness Facilities

Graduates from an accredited exercise science program undergo the qualifications to prepare for careers in various health and fitness facilities. Personal titles within these facilities may include but are not limited to personal trainer, strength and conditioning coach, wellness coach, group fitness instructor, and exercise physiologist where each facility may specialise in a different client demographic.

Medical Opportunities

An exercise science degree can also be used as a stepping stone for an advanced degree (Master’s or Doctorate) for those interested in obtaining jobs in healthcare or research. After obtaining an advanced degree, some careers in healthcare may require an additional licensing exam to practice in the area of speciality. Some of these careers include physiotherapist, physician assistant, physiotherapy assistant, and occupational therapist. In the UK, those with a Master’s or Doctorate can apply for positions within the National Health Service (NHS) which usually require additional training to meet the stringent NHS standards of practice. 

Additional Opportunities 

Exercise science is a broad category that encompasses a multitude of career opportunities. As a result, one may pursue additional paths using an exercise science degree with titles such as exercise physiologist, sports physiologist, cardiac rehabilitation specialist, and nutrition and exercise specialist to name a few. Depending on individual interests and skill sets, it is possible to pursue careers in medical sciences including biomedical research, cardiology, respiratory physiology, oncology, and gerontology amongst others.

What does an Exercise Scientist do?

An exercise scientist helps people improve their fitness, sporting performance and general health. They use a combination of biomechanics, physiology, psychology and performance to obtain a needs analysis to develop an appropriate program for a client. (5). Exercise scientists can work in numerous settings including hospitals, fitness/corporate centres, collegiate and professional sports teams as well as conducting research in universities. They can work together as part of a multidisciplinary team helping to improve fitness and performance alongside S&C coaches, sports therapists, physiotherapists, psychologists, nutritionists, and neurologists.

Is Exercise Science a growing industry?

In the US, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, exercise science and the careers related to this field are growing. A growth of 13% in employment opportunities for exercise science will be seen from 2016-2026. For example, employment opportunities for exercise physiologists are expected to grow by 9% from 2021 to 2031 in the US (6). In Australia, physical sciences careers are expected to grow by 3.5% from 2021-2026 (7). As for the UK, employment in sport and exercise science roles is expected to rise by 2.3% from 2022 to 2027 (8). One of the best ways to decide if this degree is for you is to gain experience in many careers that an exercise science degree can offer. This can be done through volunteering or with an internship opportunity. 

What is the difference between a Sports Scientist and an Exercise Scientist?

A sports scientist and an exercise scientist sound very similar although there is a difference between the two. Exercise scientists work with individuals to increase fitness and overall health using exercise or training, whereas sports scientists work to understand and improve sport performance. 

What is the difference between a Physiotherapist and an Exercise Scientist?

A physiotherapist is a clinician who helps clients rehabilitate after injury. This includes hands-on techniques coupled with therapeutic exercise to reduce pain and improve overall function. To become a physiotherapist, education requirements include a bachelor’s degree in exercise science or sports therapy or completing additional modules mostly focused on the sciences. Following that,  graduate school requires either two ( typically outside of the U.S.)  to three years ( typically in the U.S.) before taking a licensure exam which is needed to practice.

As mentioned earlier, an exercise scientist uses exercise or training to understand physiological changes within the human body. An exercise scientist can obtain a job after a bachelor’s degree at university. Typically graduate school is not required, however, there are options for advanced degrees within exercise science that may help separate graduates from other applicants for a specific role. 

Best Universities to study Exercise Science in the world? 

Exercise science can be studied from anywhere around the world both remotely and in person. Here is a breakdown of the top 10 global ranking of universities to study Exercise Science (10);

1. Deakin University (Australia) 
2. Norwegian School of Sport Sciences (Norway)
3. University of Copenhagen (Denmark)
4. Verona University (Italy) 
5. Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (Netherlands) 
6. Loughborough University (UK)
7. Victoria University (Australia)
8. Norwegian University of Science and Technology (Norway)
9. University of Southern Denmark (Denmark)
10. Curtin University (Australia)

However, table rankings should be used in conjunction with other factors such as locality, tuition fees, living costs, and faculty expertise. Unless specialising at Master’s or Doctorate level, attaining a first-class bachelor’s degree at any university will be weighed on merit alongside extracurricular activity and additional accreditations. Work experience will greatly enhance any prospects as this demonstrates the ability to go above and beyond the minimum required to achieve a degree.

Conclusion

Exercise science is the study of human movement as it pertains to exercise, fitness and health. A degree in exercise science can lead to a multitude of careers depending on where your interests lie. These include but are not limited to personal training, wellness coaching, corporate fitness or using the degree as a stepping stone to an advanced degree in the medical field such as physiotherapy,  occupational therapy, or biomedical research. The trajectory for employment for careers utilising an exercise science degree shows promise with a rise in growth.  Exercise science can be studied at most universities around the world with options both in person and online. 

The post Exercise science: What exactly is it? appeared first on Science for Sport.

1. Introduction
2. What is a KBOX?
3. What does a KBOX do?
4. How does KBOX work?
5. Is KBOX worth it?
6. How do I set up KBOX?
7. Conclusion

Introduction

The kBox is a flywheel training device that is in its fifth generation of development since its inception in 2011-12. The platform-based flywheel device offers a range of exercises to be performed in the gym (e.g. squats, hinges, rows), and is portable to travel wherever necessary (e.g. pitch, home gym, or hotel). The action of the flywheel provides a training experience that is truly unlike any other, and the physical benefits of increasing strength and hypertrophy are well-researched (1). Ultimately, for individuals looking to maximise their time and results with training, the novel stimulus allowed with the kBox can be a difference maker for athletes aiming to gain an edge regarding performance enhancement and injury resilience.

What is a KBOX?

A kBox is a platform-based flywheel training device designed by Exxentric. The platform allows users to stand atop and push against in order to perform a variety of exercises (e.g. squat, hinge, calf raise, row, etc.). Users will actively push or pull (i.e. apply force) to a strap attached to a handle, bar, or belt that works against a rotating flywheel as resistance.  Essentially, the kBox is a platform-based flywheel training device designed by Exxentric that has gone through five versions of advancements in the last twelve years.

Exxentric is arguably the leader in the resurgence of flywheel training for fitness and athletic development over the last decade. Fredrik Correa and Marten Fredriksson founded their company in 2011 after identifying a need for a more practical and efficient training tool while working with youth ice hockey players (2). Over the last decade, the kBox has continued to evolve into the premiere option for a variety of exercises using flywheel technology. It has been researched as an alternative to free weight exercises and continues to surface as a worthwhile training means that matches or exceeds the gains experienced with traditional free weight training (3). Ultimately, the stimulus experienced with a flywheel provides a meaningful stimulus that may benefit the athlete, team, or individual you work with.

The use of flywheel devices in training dates back to the late 1700s (Gymnasticon, 2).  Flywheels were used in the early 1900s for exercise physiology research and gained the strongest support in the 1990s as a training means for astronauts aiming to limit muscle and bone loss during zero-gravity space travel (2). The training experience and opportunities to load various movement patterns (e.g. squat, leg extension, etc.) through the inertia and kinetic energy generated in a flywheel provided a practical option that exposes muscles to the necessary resistance (i.e. mechanical tension) to support maintaining strength and muscle mass (2). 

With the kBox, Exxentric took the approach of training astronauts in space to training athletes in the gym, on the court, or at the pitch. With a much more favourable environment, flywheel training provides substantial increases in strength and muscle mass (1).  Through Exxentric’s advancements over the years, the kBox has become a versatile, portable, and practical option for a range of athletes to at-home exercise enthusiasts.

What does a KBOX do?

The kBox creates resistance through the rotation of weighted wheels that generate inertia based on the momentum generated during the concentric (upward) action of a movement (1). What is special about the kBox and flywheel training is that the design and materials used allow for the resistance to match the effort of the user. For example, however hard the athlete works (pushes or pulls) through the concentric action, the axle will continue to rotate and recoil the strap with the same energy that was generated. Hence the term, ‘isoinertial,’ where the load is constant due to the inertia generated by the user and kinetic energy built in (1).

Based on the strategies used during the concentric and eccentric portion, there is opportunity to experience an eccentric overload either by a delayed reception of the inertia on the eccentric side (lengthening portion of the movement), or an accentuated concentric action through assistance or a stronger position.  For example, if an athlete is squatting on the kBox, and pushes with maximal effort throughout the full range of motion (especially in the top portion of the squat where it becomes more advantageous, and the user is able to generate more energy in the wheel). As the strap recoils, the athlete can move into a deeper squat position to brake and redirect the rotating flywheel.  Given the additional energy built as the athlete accelerates up, there is potential for eccentric overload to be experienced at the bottom. This ‘overload’ has been shown to help build muscle, strength, and resiliency (5).

How does KBOX work?

Resistance training typically works with external loads and gravity (e.g. barbells, dumbbells, etc.), whereas the kBox uses inertia generated in the flywheel to create resistance similar to a yoyo. The thing to recognize is that whatever energy is generated on the way up/out (as the strap uncoils) will be returned on the way down/in (as the strap recoils). Additionally, users can use larger wheels to reduce the speed of movement and increase the amount of inertia to overcome when performing various exercises.

Due to the rotating wheel, there is a cyclical action to repetitions that is unlike any other form of resistance training.  The greatest levels of tension or generated while the muscles are at their longest length, which is an aspect beneficial to increasing hypertrophy and durability for athletes aiming to do so (4).

Due to the rotating wheel, there is a cyclical action to repetitions that is unlike any other form of resistance training.  The greatest levels of tension or generated while the muscles are at their longest length, which is an aspect beneficial to increasing hypertrophy and durability for athletes aiming to do so (4).

Given the fact that the resistance is generated by the user, the ‘variable resistance’ provided aims to maximise each repetition from the start (given the effort level of the user is maximal), and tapers to match the effects of fatigue. This allows sets to be extended further than typical mass-based resistance that remains constant. Therefore, it allows athletes to accumulate more stimulatory repetitions in a set, volume in a session, and possibly better skill and performance development.

Regarding performance metrics, the kMeter (which measures flywheel rotations) provides live, rep by rep, feedback (2). Users are able to see concentric/eccentric power, range of motion, forces produced (concentric) or yielded (eccentric), eccentric overload achieved, and energy expended for each repetition (5). This insight is useful for making training decisions and tracking progress similar to velocity-based training, these metrics provide the user with a target to achieve and can help to dictate the number of reps in a set, and sets in a given session. 

Is KBOX worth it?

Given the practicality and novelty of a kBox, I would suggest considering incorporating it into your training regime. The advancements over the last decade have made it a durable and efficient system that is able to adapt to numerous exercises (e.g. squats, hinges, rows, etc.)

Likewise, for athletes with limited training space (e.g. garage gym, on field, or travelling), they can accomplish a good amount of primary complex movements with minimal equipment and adjustments.

Therefore, if the budget allows, I think a commitment and exposure to flywheel training can be a beneficial exposure to maximising the return on strength, hypertrophy, rehabilitation, and resiliency training.

Further, there are a range of kBox options available (e.g. kBox Active, kBox Lite, kBox Pro, etc.) that vary in price (2).  This allows users to find the model that best fits their needs at an affordable price.

How do I set up KBOX?

The kBox is easy to set up, has minimal moving parts, and has great support in navigating any technical issues from Exxentric (2). The advancements in materials and interaction of parts have greatly improved over the last ten years. With the most recent rollout of the fifth generation kBox, it is arguably better than ever. The set-up process is as simple as attaching the desired attachment (e.g. belt, harness, handle), adjusting the strap to the appropriate length, deciding appropriate load, and executing the movement to ensure that the box remains stable.  All in all, the kBox provides the user with a great experience that leaves them better physically but also mentally encouraged to be consistent day to day and week to week throughout training.

Conclusion

As with the investment of any training device, there is a filter of questions that a coach and athlete must go through to decide whether the return is worth the investment. Given the consistent training benefits shown in flywheel research, that is reason enough for me to consider implementing it into training for any athlete, regardless of sport or training age (6 & 7). Flywheel training with the kBox is adaptable to the individual’s ability. Not to mention, it is versatile and portable. The exercise prescription and progression is really only limited by the imagination of the individual. Lastly, the price for the quality and durability is justifiable as well. As the saying goes, ‘you get what you pay for’ and I think for the price, the cost definitely outweighs the benefits. The kBox provides unique opportunities that could be the difference maker in an individual’s ability to be stronger, faster, and more durable.

The post kBox | Flywheel training appeared first on Science for Sport.

1. Introduction
2. Embrace a Growth-Oriented Mindset 
3. Prioritize your athletes’ needs and leave your ego at home
4. Communicate Honestly and Directly 
5. Acknowledge Limits and Seek Expertise
6. Empower Athletes’ Autonomy
7. Connect on a Personal Level, not just as professionals

Introduction

Strength and Conditioning (S&C) coaches hold a key role in enhancing athletes’ performance and minimising injury risks during sports participation. Knowledge of training principles, exercise physiology, anatomy, biomechanics, and the ability to design precise training programs for optimal performance are all key abilities for an S&C coach to have. However, an often-overlooked aspect is understanding human motivation, effective communication, and the right approach to guide individuals toward self-improvement. Neglecting these factors can present barriers in the coach´s strive to develop high-performing athletes.

To become a highly skilled and sought-after S&C coach, it is advisable to explore the fields of behavioural psychology and leadership. This article outlines 6 key attributes that will make you as a new S&C coach better prepared to coach athletes. Let’s explore the 6 key attributes that every S&C coach should strive to develop.

Embrace a growth-oriented mindset

Mindset as an S&C coach should be a top priority when considering personal development. When discussing the impact of mindset on one’s career, the work of Carol Dweck is a key reference tool. In her book “Mindset: The New Psychology of Success,” Dweck differentiates two distinct types of mindsets: the “Fixed mindset” and the “Growth mindset.” Individuals with a fixed mindset tend to believe that talent is inherited, while those with a growth mindset believe that persistence and hard work can make a coach develop and that it is possible to learn or improve in almost any skill. Choice of mindset significantly affects the approach to work and response to criticism or setbacks (2). 

So, how does all this apply to S&C coaches? Those with a fixed mindset tend to focus too much on talent, and when they realise that they lack talent, they may either waive any thoughts about possible personal shortcomings or give up and quit. Does this sound like the path to becoming a top-level coach? Certainly not. To excel as an S&C coach, it is strongly recommended to adopt a growth mindset. As Dweck explains in her book “Mindset: Changing The Way You Think To Fulfill Your Potential,” individuals with a growth mindset value constructive feedback, welcome challenges, and bounce back stronger after any defeat or failure (2). 

For example, if a newly qualified coach gets the opportunity to spend an hour with a highly experienced S&C coach who has worked many years with elite international clubs, how well that hour is utilised will depend on their mindset. A fixed mindset might lead the new coach to avoid asking questions that they think might be stupid and reveal gaps in their knowledge. In contrast, a growth mindset would encourage the new coach to enjoy the opportunity, ask questions, and attempt to add golden nuggets to their existing knowledge. A growth-mindset would also be willing to change from his or her existing beliefs if those were to be proven false, and instead adopt a new way to think in line with what seems to be the right information at the time. 

Prioritise your athletes’ needs and leave your ego at home

Ego has no place in coaching. It’s key to always prioritize what’s best for your athletes to facilitate their improvement. While this may seem obvious in theory, it can be challenging. Transitioning from playing sports to coaching requires a change in mindset. As a player, the focus is to become a better player, with less focus on the needs of others.  However, it is important to understand that as a coach, the primary task is to provide athletes with the best training suited for their needs; most athletes only care that the exercises programmed will help them elevate their performance within their sport. 

Communicate honestly and directly

Honesty and straightforward communication are highly valued qualities, not only in the business world but also among athletes. Research by Perry and Mankin (2007) indicates that work satisfaction and trust in leaders are closely related to their leader’s level of honesty and ability to communicate fairly and directly (3). As an S&C coach, athletes very much appreciate honesty and clear communication between them and their coaches and executives. The level of honesty can be seen in a variety of situations, from club executives making promises about the direction of a club or future resources to coaches explaining reasons behind player selections. 

It is also essential to address an athlete’s physical weaknesses or areas for improvement. Honesty and straightforward communication apply to our profession as well. But it is how well this information is packaged and delivered to the athletes that is the real deal breaker. While being direct in communication is important, the tone and how the message is framed are equally critical. Giving constructive feedback shows that the athlete’s best interests are the priority, and this could be a springboard to a more productive working environment. 

Acknowledge limits and seek expertise

When athletes come to a coach for help on a topic that lies beyond their area of expertise, it’s important that the coach admits that they lack the requested knowledge and instead helps them find someone with more knowledge in that area; happily sharing weaknesses with the athletes will build credibility and trust. The next time the same athlete approaches a coach for help, they will assume that they are exactly the right person to ask because they will have built trust with that coach to guide them to the right source for that information. Instead of pretending to know everything, it is important to say, “I don’t know, but I can find out,” or “This topic falls outside my expertise; perhaps you should consult…” and follow up, demonstrating integrity and honesty, further building trust.

Empower athletes’ autonomy

According to self-determination theory (SDT), autonomy is an essential psychological need that contributes to enhanced intrinsic motivation and psychological health (1). In order to increase athletes’ autonomy, provide them with choices within the prescribed training programs that are still aligned with the goals strived to achieve. 

One concrete example is the following: The day’s focus is lower-body strength, and the athletes are told: 

“Today, you can choose between Trap bar deadlifts and High bar back squats.. Giving athletes a choice shows them that their opinion is important, and invites collaboration in their development. So, when using this approach, the program does not only target the key physical capacities but also targets increased intrinsic motivation, which is very important for their long-term commitment to the program.

As a coach, it is possible to take this collaborative approach to programming to a different level; invite the athletes to share which skills or physical capabilities they want to develop. After identifying areas of improvement (that both coach and athlete agree on), start to give them different exercise options that all share the same fundamental training principles and aim. This is a much more motivating way to work for all parties, as a motivated and happy athlete is a more successful athlete. So next time, invite the athletes to create a programme together, improving commitment to development and developing intrinsic motivation. 

Connect on a Personal Level, not just as professionals

Relatedness, another key component of SDT, represents the human need to feel part of a community where people care for and look out for each other (1). At the beginning of a coaching career, athletes are often considered purely through their performances. If that is the case it is important to change perspective. Senior coaches may say something like: “Don’t get too caught up in their personal lives. You are their coach, not their friend”. While this is true to some extent, by getting to know athletes on a personal level and by understanding their drive and appreciating them as people, coaching becomes easier and much more fun. Also, when motivation is running low as a coach, or when there is a bad day at work, considering athletes as people and not as professionals can help to readjust one’s mindset. Treating them as people first and athletes second should be a guiding principle in any coaching career.

For more ways to level up your coaching, listen to the following podcast hosted by Matt Solomon with Scott Caulfield, Director Of Strength & Conditioning at Colorado College.

The post 6 key attributes that make a great S&C coach appeared first on Science for Sport.

1. Introduction
2. What are cluster sets?
3. What are cluster sets used for?
4. Do cluster sets work?
5. How to perform cluster sets work
6. What is a cluster set example?
7. How many cluster sets per exercise?
8. What is the difference between cluster sets and myo sets?
9. Conclusion

Introduction

Cluster sets are a strategy used in weight training to preserve the velocity of an exercise across a series of repetitions (i.e., a ‘set’). This allows power output and overall quality of exercise execution to be sustained over the course of a set by interspersing brief stints of rest between individual repetitions or ‘clusters’ (2-5) of repetitions (15). 

Cluster sets potentially allow for exercises (e.g. squat, bench press, power clean) to be completed at higher intensities (heavier loads relative to 1-repetition maximum). Due to the intraset rest, implementing cluster sets helps to promote maximal intent for each repetition due to the conservation of fatigue by avoiding extended sets (typically nothing beyond ~ 5 repetitions, (1)). Due to the opportunities allowed with cluster sets, research has shown that this method can be a viable training strategy to enhance strength, power, and hypertrophy (15).

What are cluster sets?

Cluster sets are a term used to describe the restructuring of a traditional set that allows for increased performance (15). Rather than performing continuous repetitions for a given set, there is an incomplete rest period allowed during the set (intraset) that minimises the fatigue associated with a more extensive, ‘traditional set’ performed in succession. 

Although research supports the benefits of increased time under tension found with traditional sets (2). Specifically, muscular hypertrophy and strength are increased through traditional straight sets (e.g. repetitions performed to fatigue, experiencing the systemic build-up of metabolites and degradation of movement velocity (9).  

However, other research has suggested that performing faster velocity-concentric movements can promote greater increases in strength and hypertrophy than slower velocities (13) and training to failure is not required in order to build maximal strength (5).

One thing to appreciate about cluster sets is that time spent training will increase as well. Cluster sets should not be confused with ‘rest redistribution,’ which is a training method that instead of taking a full 2-3-min break between traditional sets, the interest rest is reduced (e.g. 60-90-sec) and the time saved is interspersed intraset to help maintain quality. Although nuanced, cluster sets are not a form of rest redistribution.

What are cluster sets used for?

Cluster sets are used as a means of maintaining higher quality outputs (e.g. movement velocity) with higher relative intensities. By doing this an individual is able to possibly operate at a higher volume load, which provides potential training and performance adaptations (15). 

Additionally, cluster sets can be used as a means of minimising fatigue and decreasing the perception of effort by limiting the extended duration of a set and avoiding performance (e.g. velocity) decrement across repetitions by increasing the rest taken intraset.

Do cluster sets work?

Cluster sets have shown to be equally as beneficial as traditional sets in the acute form. Performing cluster sets reduces the perception of effort, mechanical, and metabolic fatigue compared to traditional sets (8).  However, as far as long-term, chronic adaptations (e.g. following 8 weeks of training), there is no significant benefit in using cluster sets when compared to traditional sets (4).

There are numerous examples in research that display the ability to maintain a greater average velocity for repetitions broken into ‘clusters’ of 1-5 reps (4), with 15-30-sec of rest (8), performing cluster sets of two repetitions (versus 4-5 repetitions) resulting in greater average force, total work, and time under tension, while maintaining power and velocity outputs (15). This is also seen with jumping performance during squat jumps, where ten sets of two repetitions outperformed two sets of ten in power, take-off velocity, and jump height (11). Ultimately, cluster sets are a strategy that has proven to allow for greater velocity and power compared to traditional sets (3).

How to perform cluster sets

A basic cluster set is accomplished by performing 1-5 repetitions with maximal effort (e.g. back squat).  The athlete then racks the bar and steps out from underneath to passively rest for 15-40 seconds before getting back under the bar, unracking, and repeating an additional 1-5 repetitions with maximal effort. Some research suggests resting >20-sec, but that depends on the exercise (e.g. power clean) (10). This can be repeated as long as quality and performance output remain. Importantly, there is still a full rest period of 2-3 minutes between sets to allow for recovery and performance of multiple sets.

What is a cluster set example? 

Instead of performing traditional sets of ten repetitions (i.e. 3×10) with 90 seconds of rest between each set, an individual can perform ten sets of three repetitions with 20 seconds of rest between each set. When compared, both strategies saw increases in strength, balance, and endurance, but the cluster set strategy was accomplished with a lower perception of effort (14) 

How many cluster sets per exercise? 

Based on a recent systematic review and meta-analysis, total sets can be anywhere from one to ten, with total repetitions accumulated in a set stopping within 8-12 repetitions (3). Ultimately, the goal of cluster sets is to maintain quality. Therefore, terminating activity when a degradation (e.g. 10-20%) of performance (e.g. velocity) occurs is important to minimise fatigue.

What is the difference between cluster sets and myo sets?

Although the literature has yet to consistently define specifically what a cluster set is (15), it is generally agreed upon that a cluster set is done to maximise the velocity of a given exercise by interspersing intraset rest periods (avoiding failure and mitigating fatigue). Whereas myo reps are a form of ‘rest-pause’ training and are generally done to failure (or near failure) in order to maximise hypertrophy (6).

Myo reps are used as a time-efficient strategy that aims to maximise ‘effective repetitions’ at the end of a traditional set, which have a close proximity to failure. The thought process around utilising myo reps is to maximise muscle fibre recruitment through incomplete rest and accumulate more repetitions under fatigue. Research has found that ‘rest-pause’ training can promote greater gains in strength, but similar hypertrophy compared to traditional sets (6).

A typical myo rep set would involve a series of repetitions (a set) that is to or just shy (1-2 repetitions) of failure, followed by a 20-30-sec rest period and then an additional 2-5 repetitions are performed. This process is repeated until the individual can no longer achieve the additional 2-5 repetitions (failure).

Conclusion

Cluster sets are arguably no better than traditional sets, but in the right context, they can be a viable strategy that helps an individual maximise their training efforts. For example, cluster sets could be a great strategy for an in-season athlete who is aiming to minimise fatigue, yet maximise performance and operate with high relative intensity (e.g. 80-90%-1-repetition maximum (4)). This training strategy can help to develop the necessary strength, power, and muscle mass helpful in enhancing sports performance. 

Ultimately, with cluster sets, quality is the key, allowing athletes to perform well and avoid digging too deep into the fatigue and failure space. By doing this, training can be more enjoyable and possibly more productive than traditional sets.  All in all, context is king, clusters have their time and place. Which inevitably depends on multiple factors (e.g. training goals, the time of year, the exercise itself, practicality, an athlete’s training history, etc.). Cluster sets have potential but need to be used appropriately to be most effective.

The post Cluster Sets appeared first on Science for Sport.

Reading should be a cornerstone of practitioners in strength and conditioning and sports performance. From reading comes the opportunity to both gain new knowledge and challenge your existing beliefs, leading to an evolution of your daily practices and providing a higher level of service to your athletes. But with all the options out there, how do you pick the right book? In this multi-part series, here are 8 of the best strength and conditioning books for coaches.

1 . High-Performance Training for Sports 

by David Joyce and Daniel Lewindon [view on Amazon]

This book covers a wide range of topics including speed, agility, jumping and landing capabilities, anaerobic and aerobic conditioning, programming for the in-season and off-season, learning and cueing, and creating a positive training environment. The authors draw on their extensive experience working with elite athletes to provide practical recommendations for coaches. Names of some of the authors who contributed include Loren Landow, Brett Bartholomew, JB Morin, Stuart McMillan, and Duncan French. The book is laid out in a simple, logical flow:

• Part 1: Establishing and Developing Resilience (the foundations of training)
• Part 2: Developing Athletic Capabilities (what to do when actually training)
• Part 3: Enhancing and Sustaining Performance (taking you through a real-life calendar of off-season, pre-season, and in-season training)

This is considered one of the most well-rounded strength and conditioning books available. Alternatively, you can watch a review here:

2. Strength and Conditioning: Biological Principles and Practical Applications

by Marco Cardinale, Robert Newton, and Kazunori Nosaka [view on Amazon]

An excellent resource for S&C coaches and practitioners strength looking to develop a deep understanding of the science behind strength and conditioning. However, this information is also tied into application in practical ways. The 5 main sections of this book include skeletal muscle physiology, neural adaptations to resistance exercise, principles of athlete testing, resistance training modes, and strength and conditioning as a rehabilitation tool. This book will create a solid foundation for the scientific whys of training athletes for all strength and conditioning coaches.

3. The Science and Practice of Strength and Conditioning

by Vladimir Zatsiorsky and William Kraemer [view on Amazon]

Written by some of the most experienced coaches in the field, who combined have worked with +100 world champions, Olympians, and record holders, the authors emphasise the importance of balancing scientific principles with practical experience by incorporating the latest research into training programs. The book also includes a variety of training programs for different sports and levels of experience, making it a valuable resource for coaches and practitioners working with a wide range of athletes.

This book is divided into three parts: the foundational knowledge of strength and conditioning, the variety of training methods in strength and conditioning, and training for specific populations (including women, youth athletes, and seniors). This book is the ideal combination of academic and applied knowledge perfect for any strength and conditioning coach.

4. Strength and Conditioning for Young Athletes

by Rhodri Lloyd and Jon Oliver [view on Amazon]

Lloyd and Oliver emphasise that young athletes are not mini adults and require a different approach to training, as strength and conditioning is not “one size fits all.” The book also emphasises the importance of creating a positive training environment that promotes motivation, enjoyment, and long-term engagement in physical activity; this is considered one of the most important yet least talked about topics. The 3 main sections include:

1. Fundamental concepts of youth development
2. Development of physical fitness in young athletes
3. Contemporary issues for young athletes.

Contributing authors include well-known names like Duncan French, John Cronin, and Micheal Cahill. With over 100 exercises with detailed instructions and pictures, this book offers sample training programs which makes this an essential resource for any coach in strength and conditioning who works with youth athletes.

5. Strength and Conditioning for Sports Performance

by Ian Jeffreys and Jeremy Moody [view on Amazon]

Including detailed information on both how to assess an athlete’s needs and how to design a program that meets those needs, this book covers the foundational science of strength and conditioning among a variety of topics including training flexibility, plyometrics, strength, speed, and endurance.

The book is authored by world-leading strength and conditioning specialists such as Nick Winkleman, Tim Gabbett, Michael Stone, and Bryan Mann. Amongst all their combined experience, this book also includes sport-specific chapters that examine the application of strength and conditioning to various sports, including soccer, basketball, golf, track and field, rugby, and American football. This book is great for strength and conditioning coaches working with a variety of sports.

6. Designing Resistance Training Programs

by Steven Fleck and William Kraemer [view on Amazon]

This book creates a detailed foundation for programming by explaining the anatomy and physiology of the musculoskeletal system, as well as the metabolic and hormonal responses to exercise. Building on this, the book includes detailed instructions on how to assess an individual’s strengths and weaknesses, which is crucial for effective program design.

This book is unique in its approach to some of the more nuanced topics including advanced training techniques, manipulating training variables, and planning rest in long-term training programs. Overall, if strength and conditioning coaches want to take their programming to the next level, this is the book for them.

7. The Science and Development of Muscle Hypertrophy

by Brad Schoenfeld [view on Amazon]

The most comprehensive guide on the latest research and practical applications of muscle hypertrophy. The book is written in a scientific yet digestible manner, as the author breaks down complex concepts into understandable terms and brings the information back to real-life application. Provided are clear guidelines on how to design resistance training programs that optimise muscle growth, including topics such as exercise selection, volume, intensity, frequency, and periodisation. And to provide even more value, the author covers topics such as nutrition, supplementation, and recovery to build on the training.

The book is well-referenced, with over 800 scientific references cited, providing fantastic information to strength and conditioning coaches looking to learn more about hypertrophy training.

8. Strength and Conditioning for Team Sports 

by Paul Gamble [view on Amazon]

A great read for strength and conditioning coaches who are looking to improve their athlete’s performance in the team setting. Topics include a thorough list covering everything team sport athletes need such as physiological and performance testing, core stability, agility and speed development, power training, strength training, metabolic conditioning, training periodisation, and injury prevention.

With over 200 new references, this book provides evidence-based best practices and recommendations for preparing team sport athletes. It also includes detailed examples of training programs for various team sports to help bring the information shared in the book to life. Overall, this is one of the most important places to start for strength and conditioning coaches who work with team sports.

Conclusion

Hopefully throughout reading the concise summaries of 8 of the top books for strength and conditioning coaches you’ve selected 1 or 2 books to pursue first to help you get closer to your goals. It’s always worth noting that the point of reading books is not just to read, but to make you a better coach.

It is recommended that you keep a notebook next to you and write down any ideas of new exercises to try, different programming principles, or anything that will turn this information into tweaks or modifications to improve your everyday coaching. A big shout out to you, reader, for wanting to level yourself up as a professional.

The post Best Books for Strength & Conditioning Coaches: Part 1 appeared first on Science for Sport.

1. Introduction
2. What is Blood Flow Restriction Training?
3. Does Blood Flow Restriction Training Really Work?
4. How Does Blood Flow Restriction Training Work?
5. How is Blood Flow Restriction Training Measured?
6. What Does Blood Flow Restriction Training Do?
7. How Do You Perform Blood Flow Restriction Training?
8. Examples of Blood Flow Restriction Training
9. Who Should Avoid Doing Blood Flow Restriction Training?
10. What Are the Side Effects of Blood Flow Restriction Therapy?
11. Conclusion

Introduction

When it comes to fitness and strength training, there’s a constantly evolving landscape of techniques and methods to achieve your goals. One such innovation that has captured the attention of fitness enthusiasts and professionals alike is Blood Flow Restriction (BFR) training. This technique, although relatively new, has shown promising results in enhancing muscle growth and performance. In this article, we’ll dive deep into the world of blood flow restriction training and answer some key questions you might have.

What is Blood Flow Restriction training?

Blood Flow Restriction training, often referred to as BFR or occlusion training, is a resistance training technique that involves using specialised cuffs or wraps to partially restrict blood flow to the muscles being worked [1]. By doing so, BFR training allows individuals to achieve muscle-building benefits with lower weight loads compared to traditional high-intensity resistance training [1, 7]. 

Does Blood Flow Restriction training really work?

Research suggests that blood flow restriction training can indeed be effective in promoting muscle growth and strength gains [2]. While the debate on its superiority over traditional high-load training continues, numerous studies have demonstrated the positive impact of BFR training on muscle hypertrophy and strength improvement [2, 13, 16].

How does Blood Flow Restriction training work?

The benefits of BFR training lie in its ability to create metabolic stress and cellular swelling within the muscle [3, 5]. By applying controlled pressure to the limbs, BFR training limits the outflow of blood while maintaining inflow [2, 5]. This results in a pooling of blood within the muscle, triggering the release of growth factors and hormones that facilitate muscle growth and adaptation [3, 5, 9].

How is Blood Flow Restriction training measured?

The measurement of blood flow restriction during training involves determining the individual’s limb occlusion pressure (LOP) [4, 5]. Specialised devices can then be used to apply a percentage of this pressure to the limb [4]. This personalised approach ensures that the pressure is effective yet safe for each individual [5, 8].

Based on current evidence, Table 1 below shows safe and effective pressure and prescription guidelines for BFR training.

Table 1. Blow flow restriction occlusion pressure guidelines

What does Blood Flow Restriction training do?

BFR training serves as a catalyst for muscle growth by stimulating muscle fibres that might not be activated as effectively during traditional training [11]. The metabolic stress induced by BFR leads to an increase in hormones like growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), fostering muscle development [12]. Additionally, BFR training enhances endurance and cardiovascular fitness due to the elevated metabolic demands placed on the muscles [10]. 

How do you perform Blood Flow Restriction training?

To perform BFR training, you’ll need specialised cuffs designed for this purpose [15]. These cuffs are typically applied to the upper arms or legs [15]. Once in place, perform low-intensity resistance exercises with weights ranging from 20-30% of your one-repetition maximum [7, 15]. The cuffs should be tight enough to restrict blood flow but not to the point of causing discomfort or pain [15]. 

How often should you perform Blood Flow Restriction training?

For optimal results, incorporating BFR training a few times a week is recommended. Ensure that you allow at least one day of rest between sessions to allow your muscles to recover [12, 14]. The frequency and duration of BFR sessions can be tailored to your fitness level and goals [10, 13]. 

Examples of Blood Flow Restriction training

FR training can be applied to various exercises such as leg extensions, leg curls, bicep curls, and tricep extensions. These exercises, performed with the cuffs on, engage muscles effectively while using lighter weights [7]. For example: 

Squat with BFR

• Apply BFR bands/cuffs to the upper thighs.
• Perform squats with a reduced load.
• BFR can create metabolic stress in the muscles, contributing to muscle growth.

Leg Press with BFR

• Attach BFR bands/cuffs to the upper thighs.
• Perform leg press exercises using a lighter load than usual.
• The restricted blood flow can help promote muscle growth and strength even with the lighter weight.

Hamstring Curl with BFR

• Attach BFR bands/cuffs to the upper thighs.
• Use a hamstring curl machine with lower resistance.
• BFR can help target the muscles effectively despite using lighter weights.

Calf Raise with BFR

• Apply BFR bands/cuffs to the upper calves.
• Perform calf raises using body weight or light weights.
• BFR can create a potent muscle pump in the calves.

Push-Up with BFR

• Place BFR bands/cuffs around the upper arms.
• Perform push-ups with your hands on the ground.
• The limited blood flow can make bodyweight exercises more challenging and effective.

Triceps Extension with BFR

• Wrap BFR bands/cuffs around the upper arms.
• Perform triceps extensions using a light dumbbell or cable machine.
• BFR can enhance muscle activation during exercise.

Bicep Curl with BFR

• Wrap BFR bands/cuffs around the upper arms.
• Perform bicep curls using a light dumbbell or resistance band.
• The restricted blood flow can lead to increased muscle pump and activation.

Note: Before attempting BFR training, it’s important to consult a qualified fitness professional or healthcare provider to ensure it’s safe for your individual situation.

Remember that BFR training should be performed with proper guidance and using appropriate equipment to ensure safety [4]. The level of restriction, duration, and intensity should be determined based on individual fitness levels and goals. If you’re new to BFR training, consider working with a certified fitness professional who has experience with this technique [4, 6].

Who should avoid doing Blood Flow Restriction training?

While BFR training is generally safe, individuals with medical conditions such as deep vein thrombosis, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, nerve impairments, a history of blood clots, or pregnancy should avoid this training method [3, 4]. Consultation with a qualified fitness professional is advisable before attempting BFR training [14, 16]. 

What are the side effects of Blood Flow Restriction training?

When done correctly, BFR training is safe, but improper cuff application or excessive pressure can lead to discomfort, numbness, tingling, or nerve damage [8]. Ensuring proper form and pressure is essential to avoid these potential side effects [10, 16]. 

Conclusion

To wrap up, BFR training offers an intriguing avenue for individuals aiming to enhance muscle gains and elevate performance through an innovative method. While not universally applicable, when executed correctly, BFR training may serve as a valuable complement to your fitness routine. It’s advisable to seek guidance from physiotherapy clinic professionals before modifying your training approach.  

The post Blood Flow Restriction training appeared first on Science for Sport.

1. Introduction
2. How to test vertical jump?
3. How to improve the Vertical Jump?
4. Summary
5. References

Introduction

The vertical jump is an essential skill in sports such as football (soccer), volleyball, basketball, and handball (1, 2, 3, 4). Interestingly for sports where the vertical jump isn’t a direct part of play, success may still be predicted by vertical jump ability.  Olympic swimming gold medalist Caeleb Dressel has a vertical jump of 109 cm and although vertical jump ability is unlikely to be associated with swimming success, Dressel transfers his vertical jump power into his turns in swimming races. Interestingly, a relationship between vertical jump ability, acceleration speed, and one-repetition maximum (1RM) back squat strength also appears to exist, further highlighting the importance of vertical jump ability (5). 

How to test vertical jump?

The vertical jump is used to assess lower-body power (6). How the vertical jump is measured will be determined by the availability of equipment and finances. Professional sports teams are going to have access to more expensive equipment than amateur athletes. However, there are many different options to measure vertical jump performance for all athletes. Here are some options:

Using a Wall

This is the most simplistic way to measure vertical jump performance. An athlete will put chalk on their fingertips, stand next to a wall and reach as high as they can to touch the wall. The chalk will leave a mark on the wall, and this will be the athlete’s standing reach height. The athlete then performs a vertical jump as high as they can and touches the wall at the top portion of the jump, leaving a second chalk mark. The difference between the two chalk marks will be the athlete’s vertical jump height. Although this test is quick and easy to perform, its accuracy is questionable as it requires the athlete to touch the wall at the highest point of the jump, which can be difficult to quantify. 

Using a Vertec Device

This requires a Vertec device to measure jump height (Figure 1). To conduct the test, the athlete performs a vertical jump and reaches as high as they can with their hand to hit the vane of the Vertec, trying to displace as many of the vanes as possible. Jump height is determined by the difference in the athlete’s standing height and the highest vane displaced during the jump. One issue with this test is the reaching with the hand action. Jump height can be misinterpreted if the athlete has poor shoulder range of motion and/or poor coordination of the arm and leg movements together. 

Force Plates/Jump Mats

Force plates are expensive but they are the gold standard in assessing vertical jump ability. Force plates can provide reams of information such as power output, the difference in leg power between the right and left leg, and contraction times which are beneficial for elite athletes looking for marginal gains or athletes returning from injury.

Jump mats/contact platforms are less expensive and typically use built-in software to estimate jump height based on flight time. Although many types of vertical jumps can be performed on force plates and jump mats, the countermovement jump (CMJ) is the most common type of vertical jump assessed. The testing procedure of the CMJ is straightforward and requires minimum space and time. 

Firstly, an athlete will step into the testing area or on an apparatus such as a jump mat or force plate. Hands must be placed on the hips and remain there throughout the test. However, some testers may allow an arm swing for the test. Research has shown the arm swing can improve performance by at least 10 %, so testers need to be consistent if they permit the arm swing (6). Once instructed, the athlete lowers down to a self-selected depth and jumps as high as they can in one continuous motion. During take-off, the athlete extends through their ankles, knees, and hips and maintains this position while in the air. The athlete should jump as high as possible and try to land in the same position they took off from. Failing to land in the starting position may delay flight time, thus, giving a false score. 

How to Improve the Vertical Jump?

It is important to note the vertical jump is a power movement. So, power optimization is necessary for vertical jump performance. Power can be defined as force x velocity. Therefore, it is important to include exercises that will target both force and velocity to improve vertical jump ability. 

Increase Strength

Developing a strong base of maximum strength training will increase one’s force capabilities and improve power optimisation. Exercises involving multiple joints and muscle groups working together like the squat are a great choice for maximum strength training – research by Wisloff et al. (2003) has shown a strong relationship between squat 1RM and vertical jumping ability (7). 

Interestingly, research by Wirth et. (2016) showed an eight-week squatting intervention to improve vertical jump performance by 12.4 % (8). When programming for maximum strength development, the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) recommends using loads greater than 85 % of 1RM for two to six sets of six repetitions or less (9). Rest times should be at least two minutes between sets to allow sufficient recovery (9). 

Programme Plyometrics

Plyometrics are exercises that exert maximum force in short time periods and are often referred to as “jump training”. Plyometric training is a ‘must-do’ to improve vertical jump ability, with vast amounts of evidence showing significant improvements in vertical jump height (10). In fact, the vertical jump itself is a plyometric movement. Improvements in all vertical jumps typically range between 4 – 8 % following plyometric training. Improvements are likely due to increased muscular power and enhanced coordination following plyometric training (10). 

Before starting plyometric training, it appears beneficial to have a strong strength base, as weaker or inexperienced individuals tend to benefit less from plyometrics (11). It was once recommended that individuals should be able to squat 1.5 times their own body weight before engaging in plyometric training (12). However, once good balance and correct technique can be displayed, it is relatively safe to introduce low-intensity plyometric exercises. A good test to see if an individual is ready for plyometric training is to stand on one leg for 30 seconds and hold your balance without falling. For those looking to advance to higher-intensity plyometric exercises, holding a single-leg half-squat position for 30 seconds is a good examination. 

The landing technique is crucially important for safety during plyometric training. A correct landing position will have the shoulders over the knees, with flexed ankles, knees, and hips. The knees must be positioned over the toes as knee valgus (knees failing inwards) is a significant risk factor for knee injuries (Figure 1). Plyometric training should initially focus on low-intensity double-leg hops and progress to high-intensity exercises such as unilateral jumps and depth jumps. 

Research from de Villarreal et al. (2009) shows a combination of countermovement jumps, squat jumps, and depth jumps are superior for improving vertical jump ability rather than only using one form of exercise (13). It appears a plyometric programme of 10 weeks with at least 20 total sessions and 50 jumps per session is optimum for improvements in vertical jump ability (13). However, if you are new to plyometric training, just focusing on low-level hops with a volume of 80–100-foot contacts per session is advised before focusing on more advanced exercises. Foot contact is simply every time the foot hits the ground in a plyometric exercise. 

Programme Olympic Lifts

Although plyometrics are going to be an optimum choice for improving power development, incorporating power-based exercises in the weights room is also going to assist in improving vertical jump height. Firstly, it is important to note individuals should need to have proficient technique and adequate experience before incorporating specific power development exercises. Olympic lifts include exercises such as the clean, the snatch, and the jerk. These exercises can generate extraordinary high-power outputs. For example, Haff (2001) reports a 100 kg man can record nearly five times more power output in Olympic lift exercises compared to traditional exercises like a squat and deadlift (14). Therefore, Olympic lifts are going to be a great choice for developing power which will lead to higher jumps. 

Research from Hackett et al. (2015) found Olympic lifting training improved vertical jump height by 7.7 % and was just as effective as plyometric training for improving vertical jump height (15). Similarly, research from Tricoli et al. (2005) showed Olympic lifting increased jump height and it was even more effective than a combination of plyometric and resistance training (16). The reason for the effectiveness of Olympic lifts is they teach the central nervous system to fire a maximum amount of motor units in the shortest possible time and this transfers nicely into effective vertical jumping ability. 

In addition, Olympic lifts also provide ‘triple extension’ which is the extension of the ankle, knees, and hips. Being able to triple extend powerfully is a key ingredient to effective vertical jumping as well. For power training programming, the NSCA recommends using loads of 75-90 % IRM for one to five reps of three to five sets (9). Rest times of two to five minutes are also recommended between sets. 

Summary

Although there is definitely not a one-size-fits-all approach, incorporating max strength training, plyometrics, and Olympic lifting in a long-term periodised plan seems optimum for improving vertical jump performance. Developing maximum strength, particularly in a squatting movement pattern is advised. This will increase force development capability which contributes to a higher vertical jump. 

As mentioned earlier, the relationship between vertical jump performance and squat 1RM is strong too. Including plyometrics in a training program is necessary for lower body power development. The vertical jump is a plyometric movement so jump height won’t improve as rapidly without practicing it. However, be vigilant with plyometric training, especially on landing technique. Finally, for an experienced trainer, incorporating the Olympic lifts into a programme can add a little bit more height to the vertical jump.

The post How to improve the vertical jump? appeared first on Science for Sport.