1. Summary
2. How does oxygen impact exercise?
3. What is an altitude training mask?
4. Do altitude training masks improve performance?
5. Is future research needed with altitude training masks?
6. Conclusion
7. About the Author
8. References

Summary

Several approaches and modalities have been used to simulate altitude training at sea level. The convenience of these methods and the benefits on both aerobic and anaerobic capacity have increased the number of athletes and non-athletes that use these approaches.

Among the novel methods, the Altitude Training Mask is a device that is claimed to simulate the benefits of altitude training. Moreover, a higher number of elite athletes have started using them in search of a competitive advantage/edge. Whether the Altitude Training Mask works as it is claimed has been intensively debated and recent studies have shown inconclusive results.

How does oxygen impact exercise?

Before we begin, it is important to clarify some of the common terminologies that will be present throughout this article:

• Hypoxia – a state where the tissue demand for oxygen exceeds the supply of oxygen.
• Hypoxic – is described as breathing a gas mixture which contains less than 21 % oxygen.
• Normobaric – a state of normal barometric pressure equivalent to that at sea level.
• Hypobaric hypoxia – is a condition where low pressure and reduced oxygen availability is present (e.g. high-altitude).
• Normobaric hypoxia – is a condition where normal pressure but reduced oxygen availability is present at terrestrial altitude (e.g. simulated altitude).
• Altitude training – is a training method used in an environment with a reduced partial pressure of oxygen. The aim is for the body to produce a greater amount of erythropoietin (EPO), which increases the number of red blood cells produced in the body.

Exercising aerobically [1] and anaerobically [2, 3] at altitude has been proven to increase VO₂ max, as well as enhance many other physiological adaptations (e.g. increased muscular power and hypertrophy). Several approaches and modalities have therefore been utilised to simulate altitude training, including normobaric hypoxia via nitrogen dilution (hypoxic department); supplemental oxygen; hypoxic sleeping devices; and intermittent hypoxic exposure [4]. Furthermore, simulated altitude training has become increasingly popular for its convenience as opposed to a cold environment, harsh terrain, and low-oxygen pressure that often accompanies high-altitude training [4].

In previous years, the various equipment used to induce hypoxia has been expensive, however, with the purpose of making this modality of training available to the broad public, new and more affordable devices have been introduced to simulate the same effects as elevation training in a more familiar environment [1]. Doing so makes it more convenient for athletes to get similar effects without having to travel to high-altitude environments [4].

One of these devices, the altitude training mask (ATM), is said to simulate altitude and induce a normobaric hypoxic condition, or minimise the amount of air allowed to be consumed by an individual [1]. An ETM is a patented pulmonary resistance training device that is currently a pioneer on the market. This device covers the user’s mouth and restricts air intake into dual channels and has an additional vent for the discharge of exhaled air.

Additionally, the mask includes a variety of adjustable resistance caps, as well as three adjustable flux valves. Furthermore, the individual can progressively increase the resistance to simulate from 900 to 5,400 meters (m) above sea level [4].

What is an altitude training mask?

The altitude training mask (ETM), also known as an elevation training mask or a ventilatory training mask, claims to enhance athletic performance by increasing endurance and VO₂ max; in addition to improving lung function [5]. The ETM is also said to simulate altitude and to induce a normobaric hypoxic condition [1].

The ETM provides adjustable resistances during inspiration with a set resistance on expiration in order to simulate high-altitude training (between 914 m to 5,486 m). The design of the mask restricts the oxygen flow using flux valves that limit the amount of air entering the mask, and therefore, the lungs [5].

Furthermore, it is suggested that the device can increase endurance and VO₂ max, as well as improve lung function [5]. Other common claims often used for marketing the ETM are that it:

• Simulates training at altitude
• Strengthens the respiratory muscles
• Increase stamina and improve endurance (aerobic performance)
• Increases strength and power (anaerobic performance)

As a result of these claims, we will now delve into scientific research and determine if any of them are true and if the ETM can have a positive effect on athletic performance.

Do altitude training masks improve performance?

In this section of the article, we will now discuss and dissect the claims made about ETM and whether or not they can actually improve athletic performance.

Simulates training at altitude
A common misconception among users of these masks is that the ETM simulates altitude by creating a hypobaric (reduced partial pressure of oxygen) environment [6]. For this to happen, however, the mask must have a mechanism to decrease the partial pressure of oxygen and therefore induce a hypoxic state during exercise [6]. Wearing the ETM does not produce a hypoxic stimulus great enough to elicit the necessary physiologic responses experienced at true elevation [6, 7] however, more research is needed to identify the specific physiological mechanisms that are elicited by this device [7].

Although inconclusive, the ETM’s flux valve system and resistance caps can reduce breathing frequency during exercise, which can potentially result in arterial hypoxemia (i.e. low levels of oxygen in the blood). This, in addition to a rebreathing of expired carbon dioxide, is likely to be responsible for the subsequent shift of the oxygen-dissociation curve (Figure 1 – [6]).

Oxygen-dissociation curve

The haemoglobin–oxygen dissociation curve is a graphical representation of the relationship between oxygen satur­ation and oxygen partial pressure. This representation helps us to understand the underlying processes of oxygen transportation to the tissues [8].

Strengthens the respiratory muscles
In line with the aforementioned, it has been suggested that rather than acting as a simulation of high altitude, the peripheral air resistance generated by the ETM may directly stress breathing musculature, therefore, acting more as a respiratory muscle training (RMT) device [6]. In theory, RMT may induce respiratory muscle fatigue and increase respiratory muscle strength, lung capacity, and oxygen efficiency over time [5].

It is suggested that RMT may improve respiratory muscle strength and endurance as a result of an increase in cellular oxidative adaptations [9], which, in turn, can lead to a delayed onset of metabolic acidosis [11]. The resulting lower levels of blood lactate during exercise, as well as the reduced perception of respiratory effort after RMT, may ultimately lead to an increase in physical performance [10].

In addition, wearing the ETM may result in significant increases in ventilatory threshold (VT) and power output at VT. Given this, no changes have been found in haematological variables before or after training. This suggests that the ETM functions more like an RMT than a tool that simulates high-altitude training [5].

Having said this, there is currently ambiguous data supporting the RMT as a potential method to enhance physical performance. Several findings suggest that improvements in RMT in respiratory muscle function are not transferable to VO₂ max or endurance exercise capacity [9, 10, 11]. There is little knowledge surrounding RMT in the literature regarding its benefits on exercise performance, or its effects on respiratory parameters [10, 11].

Increase stamina and improve endurance (aerobic performance)
Using the ETM has shown to cause arterial hypoxemia, but in a different way compared to real altitude training. Using the mask causes inadequate ventilation, resulting in an imbalance between oxygen uptake and CO2 removal, and can, therefore, lead to hyperventilation. This, in turn, causes the ETM to increase the perceived exertion while training [7].

Furthermore, when attempting to use the ETM in order to increase an individual’s VO₂ max, studies have shown inconclusive results. For example, some studies have found no significant difference in VO₂ max by wearing the mask [4, 12]. On the other hand, another study found an increase in VO₂ max in subjects wearing the mask, but importantly, it also found improvements in those who did not wear the ETM [5].

It has also been stated the ETM does not elicit a response for improving cardiorespiratory fitness [1]. In line with this, as the ETM does not simulate an altitude environment, the desired effects of high-altitude training (e.g. increase in red blood cells) will not exist [1]. As a result, wearing the ETM in training settings with the purpose of increasing stamina and improving endurance is not supported by conclusive evidence.

Increases strength and power (anaerobic performance)
Finally, ETM is claimed to help athletes achieve better performance during high-intensity interval training and strength training, under the assumption that oxygen restriction may result in adaptations relating to an enhanced buffering capacity [6].

This is also currently inconclusive and more research is needed to know if the ETM would compromise the ability to train at intensities high enough to elicit such adaptations [6]. Moreover, its use does appear to negatively influence peak velocity during both the back squat and the bench press exercises, which may attenuate training outcomes over time [6].

Whether strength training under hypoxic conditions can improve performance has recently been studied with promising results in terms of hypertrophy and muscular power [2, 3, 13]. Additionally, resistance training during hypoxic exposure has been shown to contribute to advanced fibre-type recruitment that may contribute to greater increases in maximal strength [14].

However, in terms of the ETM and strength training, limited research is available regarding adaptations in strength and power performance when using the ETM. A study published in 2017 suggested that wearing the ETM while performing a strength training session appears to not only hinder the ability to maintain working velocity during the bouts but also affect the athlete’s ratings of alertness and focus for the task [6].

Is future research needed with altitude training masks?

More research is needed to clarify the specific effects of the ETM on the different claims used for its marketing. For example, research is needed to clarify the following:

• The true mechanisms behind the simulated altitude training and how similar/effective it is compared to other hypobaric methods.
• The relationship between the ETM and athletic performance (e.g. endurance and strength) and how the different features that are enhanced by the mask serve for a better performance.
• Which athletes/ sports may benefit the most from this training method?

Conclusion

Although more research is needed, it seems ETMs work more as a respiratory muscle training device than as an altitude simulator. Moreover, there is still limited research concerning the aerobic and anaerobic benefits of altitude training at sea level with the use of an ETM.

Furthermore, the gap in knowledge also extends to the effects of ETM on long-term health and cardiorespiratory fitness. Despite the claims made by ETM manufacturers and marketers in terms of improved endurance and strength capacities, the effectiveness of the ETM has been intensively debated and recent studies have shown inconclusive results.

Finally, even though a larger number of elite and non-elite athletes have started to use the ETM to try and gain a competitive edge, it is vital they understand the science behind the technology and whether or not they have actually been shown to work before using and marketing these products themselves.

The post Altitude Training Masks | Do they work? appeared first on Science for Sport.

1. Summary
2. Is strength training appropriate for young athletes?
3. Is strength training important for sports?
4. Is strength training important for health?
5. When should children begin strength training?
6. Is future research needed with youth strength training?
7. Conclusion
8. References
9. About the Author

Summary

Youth strength training is a topic of interest for many researchers, clinicians, practitioners and coaches. When to start, how much is enough or too much, and what to prescribe is constantly debated and put under scrutiny.

However, at present, a compelling body of scientific evidence supports participation in appropriately designed youth resistance training programmes that are supervised and instructed by qualified professionals. Moreover, the benefits of strength training starting at younger ages can eventually have long-term implications for an individual’s healthy lifestyle and future sports participation.

Is strength training appropriate for young athletes?

The participation of children and adolescents in various forms of resistance training has been an area of both interest and controversy for the past decades (1, 2). Researchers, clinicians and coaches have all provided their expert input, and over the past few years several prestigious organisations and national associations have developed policy documents or position stands to summarise key findings in the area and provide guidance for coaches, parents and teachers (1, 3, 4).

It is commonly stated that “children are not miniature adults”, and because of their immature physiological and psychological state, they should be prescribed appropriate training programmes according to their technical ability and stage of development (5). As growth and maturation develop in a non-linear way through childhood and adolescence, this has a great impact on the adequate training prescription required by each individual (5, 6).

Recent research has indicated that resistance training can elicit significant performance improvements in muscular strength, muscular endurance, power production, change of direction speed and agility, balance and stability, coordination and speed of movement in youth athletes (2, 3). It also has positive effects on health (e.g. decreased cardiovascular disease risk), in addition to improving psychological well-being (3, 4), as well as helping to reduce both the severity and incidence of injuries (7).

In accordance, strength training is now well-recognised as both safe and effective for children and adolescents when appropriately designed and supervised by qualified professionals and consistent with the needs, goals and abilities of each individual (2, 8, 9, 10). There is also a compelling body of scientific evidence that supports regular participation in youth resistance training to reinforce positive health and fitness adaptations and sports performance enhancement (2).

Older myths and misinformation, regarding the potential negative effects of resistance training for children, have been refuted. Thus, coaches, fitness professionals, and young athletes can now focus on the optimal training regimens to enhance muscular fitness and athletic performance (3).

Clarity of some common terms

Prepubescent – before the age at which a person begins puberty (approximately 11.5-13.5 years).

Adolescent – from the onset of puberty to the end of pubertal growth (approximately 18 years).

Children – from 2 years old to the onset of puberty.

Youth – the period between childhood and adulthood.

Is strength training important for sports?

The improvement of athletic performance in youth athletes is a complex task, and achieving high levels of athleticism requires a robust long-term plan. Sports participation alone, in many cases, does not offer sufficient stimulus to achieve this. Resistance training in all forms (e.g. strength, power or speed training) can help to attenuate these issues by protecting against injuries and positively affecting youth athletes’ physical literacy, thus, diminishing the impact of low physical activity and early sport specialisation among youths (7).

Stronger young athletes will be better prepared to learn complex movements, master sport tactics, and sustain the demands of training and competition (11). Thus, resistance training prescription should be based on an appropriate progression according to training age, motor skill competency, technical proficiency and existing strength levels. Another factor to consider is the biological age and psychosocial maturity level of the child or adolescent (1, 6).

A high level of muscular strength contributes to enhancing performance ability in young athletes. Moreover, it is also important to build a good base of fundamental movements during childhood and adolescence, as this will help the youths develop more efficient motor skills whilst simultaneously reducing their risk of injury due to improved body control and/or technique (11).

Strength
The ability to produce high levels of force is important for sports performance at all levels (9). Good parameters of maximal muscular strength influence performance due to increases in muscular power and muscular endurance (12).

Resistance training has been found to be an effective method to promote muscular strength and jump performance in youth athletes (9). Moreover, it has been shown muscular strength has a direct impact on running speed, muscular power, change of direction speed, plyometric ability, and endurance (13). In accordance with this, it seems that muscular strength is critical for the efficient development of fundamental movement skills (FMS) (13).

The development of muscle strength depends on multiple factors, such as muscular, neural, mechanical, psychological and hormonal (13, 14). Moreover, strength develops in a non-linear way throughout childhood and adolescence. Nevertheless, strength tends to increase similarly both in girls and boys until the age of 14, where a plateau begins in girls and a spurt is evident in boys (8).

It is important to acknowledge the fact that growth and maturation will affect strength gains both before, during and after puberty (14). In this sense, it has been found that relative strength gains in prepubescents are equal, or greater, to those shown by adolescents. In general, adolescent absolute strength gains appear to be greater than prepubescent gains, but less than adult gains (11).

Speed

The development of speed throughout childhood will be influenced by multiple changes in the muscle, such as growth in cross-sectional area and length, biological and metabolic changes, neuromuscular development, and changes in biomechanical factors and coordination (8). As well as with other physical traits, speed development occurs in a non-linear way throughout childhood (16).

In terms of speed development throughout childhood and adolescence, it has been shown that weight gains during puberty can negatively affect a young athlete’s speed. Strength training can, therefore, be an effective way to overcome the negative influence of this increase in mass by enhancing force production. Simultaneously, it would also positively impact favourable changes in body composition, thus maximising relative maximal force (i.e. the amount of force an athlete can apply in comparison to their body weight) (16).

Finally, recent findings have shown that the variance in sprint performance in adolescent boys may be the result of varying degrees of strength and power. This implies the importance of an early introduction to resistance training for boys wishing to enhance their maximal speed (16).

Power
Increases in muscular power occur around the time of peak height velocity among youngsters. Moreover, the time when peak muscular powers become noticeable tends to coincide with peak weight velocity. This phenomenon suggests that increases in both muscle mass and motor unit activation are closely linked to the development of muscular power (16).

Evidence in the literature has shown that plyometric training (17) and strength training (3, 18) both have a positive impact on enhancing muscular power in young athletes; even when used in isolation (19) and in combination (9). As such, strength training can have a significant impact on the power production abilities of young athletes, and considering power is a vital aspect of many sports (20), there is plenty of justification for the inclusion of strength training within the young development programme.

Injury Reduction
Participation in sport involves some inherent risk of injury, and although the total elimination of sport-related and physical activity-related injuries is an unrealistic goal, it appears that an all-round programme which focuses on increasing muscle strength, enhancing movement mechanics and improving functional abilities may be the most effective strategy for reducing sports-related injuries in young athletes (2, 6, 10). The strengthening of muscles and connective tissues through strength training makes young athletes capable of sustaining higher external forces, which therefore makes them less susceptible to soft-tissue injury (6, 21).

Additionally, the effectiveness of these injury prevention programmes – a good example of which is the FIFA 11+ – is greater if implemented in younger age groups prior to the commencement of neuromuscular deficits and biomechanical alterations seen during growth spurts (2). In female athletes, for example, early engagement in neuromuscular training is likely to result in a reduced risk of anterior cruciate ligament injury later in life (6, 21). Furthermore, specific resistance training exercises can help to prevent the development of bone injuries (e.g. Sever’s disease) (22).

Moreover, as growth and maturation are periods of rapid development, young athletes are at a greater risk of sustaining injuries, whether they participate or not in competitive sports or non-competitive recreational physical activity (6). In many cases, it is also well-acknowledged that strength training sessions carry a lower risk of injury in comparison to the sport itself (4). This simply means that children are more likely to get injured playing their respective sport than they are during strength training (providing appropriate supervision is in place).

Is strength training important for health?

There are many health benefits associated with regular physical activity in children and adolescents. Recent findings indicate that resistance training can offer unique benefits for children and adolescents when appropriately prescribed and supervised, such as positively influencing several measurable indices of health and fitness. For example (2, 10):

• Body composition
• Cardiovascular risk profile
• Reduce body fat
• Facilitate weight control
• Improve insulin sensitivity
• Strengthen bone
• Enhancing psychosocial wellbeing

A strength training programme also seems to be particularly beneficial for sedentary youth who are often unwilling and unable to perform prolonged periods of aerobic exercise, such as overweight or obese children and adolescents. Participation in a formalised training programme that is inclusive of resistance training can provide an opportunity to improve their muscle strength, enhance motor coordination and gain confidence in their perceived abilities to be physically active (2, 23).

Moreover, participation in youth programmes that enhance muscular strength and fundamental movement skill performance early in life appears to build the foundation for an active lifestyle later in life. Since muscular strength is an essential component of motor skill performance, developing competence and confidence to perform resistance exercise during the growing years may have important long-term implications for health, fitness, and well-being (2).

Bone Development
Despite previous concerns developed from unsubstantiated evidence in the 70s and 80s (10), resistance training seems to be an effective strategy for increasing bone health during the growing years (10, 24, 25). As well as optimising skeletal health during childhood (25, 26), this is also important for reducing the likelihood of fractures later in life (28). Participation in regular strength training has been shown to improve both bone mineral density (24, 29) and geometry (24, 25).

Several findings have pointed out a positive link between physical activity and bone health across the age spectrum (30). Moreover, resistance training has no detrimental effect on linear growth in children and adolescents (4), although, it has been suggested that mechanical loading of bone has a threshold that must be met to have a positive effect on factors related to bone health (4, 21).

Traditional fears and misinformed concerns that resistance training would injure the growth plates of youths are not supported by robust scientific reports or clinical observations (2). Instead, the mechanical stress placed on the developing growth plates from resistance exercise appears to be very beneficial for bone formation and growth (2, 31). Furthermore, these benefits in bone mass in children are maintained into adulthood (30).

While numerous factors, including genetics and nutritional status, influence skeletal health, regular participation in sports and fitness programmes can help to optimise bone-mineral accrual and geometry during childhood and adolescence (32, 33, 34).

Cardiovascular Development
There is evidence to indicate that the precursors of cardiovascular diseases have their origin in childhood and adolescence (23, 35, 36). Furthermore, risk factors such as total and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLc), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLc), triglycerides, insulin resistance, inflammatory proteins, blood pressure and body fat during childhood have been shown to track into adulthood (35).

Given this, the potential influence of resistance training on body composition has become an important topic of investigation, especially considering that the prevalence of obesity among children and adolescents continues to increase worldwide (11). Furthermore, it seems that a higher level of muscular strength is associated with a healthier cardiovascular profile in children and adolescents (34, 35). However, there is likely to be an upper threshold to this, whereby further increases in strength are not met with an improved cardiovascular profile; not to mention that a correlation does not suggest causality.

Additionally, several recent studies have suggested that resistance training or circuit weight training (i.e. combined resistance and aerobic training) may have favourable health benefits (e.g. body composition) for children and adolescents who are obese or at risk for obesity (11, 36).

Neuromuscular Development
Prepubescent athletes tend to have neuromuscular control deficits (e.g. valgus hip and knee alignment during jump-landing tasks), which in turn, is associated with increased injury risk (21). The neuromuscular control capacities that allow the dissipation of impact forces whilst maintaining proper lower-limb alignment have been identified as key factors in reducing youth athletes’ relative risk of injury (21). In the early period of life, the aim of a neuromuscular training programme should be to improve the movement efficiency and muscular coordination of children (12).

Therefore, it is proposed that resistance training should begin early in life, where the focus should be on enhancing the learning of this new activity and stimulating an ongoing interest in this type of training. Owing to neural plasticity during the growing years, there is an unparalleled opportunity to target strength development during this period in order to set the stage for enhanced athletic skill and health later in life (12).

When should children begin strength training?

While chronological age has traditionally been used for initial participation in sports teams (e.g. under-16s), it is clear that differences in growth and maturation (e.g. height, weight, strength) emerge around the age of 6-7 years of age (37). These developmental differences in stature and skill can make programming for youth based on chronological age difficult and also unfair due to biological maturity and the relative age effect (37).

Although there is no minimum age requirement for participation in a youth resistance-training programme, all participants should have the fundamental competence too (1, 2, 10):

1. Accept and follow instructions
2. Understand basic safety considerations
3. Possess competent levels of balance and postural control

Thus, youth strength training could start with children as young as 5–6 years of age, providing they present these fundamental characteristics. Even children that young have been shown to make noticeable improvements in muscular fitness following exposure to basic resistance training exercises using body weight, free weights, machine weights and elastic resistance bands (2).

Another way to view this question is, if children are ready to engage in organised sports, it would also mean they are ready to participate in appropriate progressive strength and conditioning as part of a long-term approach to developing athleticism (6). It is vital to understand that introductory strength and conditioning does not start with heavy back squats, but instead with bodyweight exercises, the use of elastic-resistance bands and any other low-level strength exercises/modalities.

Is future research needed with youth strength training?

Even though it is accepted that youth strength training is a safe and effective method to enhance physical literacy in youth, there are still some areas that need further research to clarify the specific mechanisms that lead to an improvement in both physical capacities and overall health. Owing to the current lack of longitudinal and well-controlled empirical studies and knowing the complex and dynamic progression that occurs during childhood and puberty, some issues of further interest would be:

• To clarify the specific mechanisms for the health-related benefits (e.g. cardiovascular disease risk, bone health) associated with youth resistance training;
• How to optimise long-term training adaptations and exercise adherence in children and adolescents;
• To investigate in which way strength training interacts with growth and maturity and;
• Explore the potential benefits of resistance training on youth with various medical conditions including obesity, diabetes, and physical and/or intellectual disabilities.

Conclusion

Strength training is now a widely accepted form of training for both children and adolescents. Despite previous concerns regarding the safety and effectiveness of youth resistance training, scientific and clinical evidence supports participation in youth resistance training programmes that are well-designed and properly instructed. These programmes have been found to benefit youths in terms of health and fitness.

Moreover, the benefits of strength training starting at younger ages can eventually have long-term implications for an individual’s healthy lifestyle and future sports participation. Finally, it is recognised that all youth should be provided with training programmes according to their individual needs, within a fun and motivational training environment.

The post Youth Strength Training appeared first on Science for Sport.

1. Summary
2. Why is maturation important for youth athletes?
3. What is bio-banding?
4. Why is bio-banding important?
5. How do you bio-band athletes?
6. Are there any issues with bio-banding?
7. Is future research needed with bio-banding?
8. Conclusions
9. References
10. About the Author

Summary

“Bio-banding is the process of grouping athletes based on attributes associated with growth and maturation, rather than chronological age (e.g. under-15s)” (1). Advocates of bio-banding believe that restricting the differences associated with maturity variance (e.g. size, strength, and skill) will result in greater equality in training and competition, and could potentially help the development of young athletes and reduce their risk of injury (2).

Children of the same chronological age vary considerably in biological maturation, where we can see that some individuals reach maturity before or after their counterparts. Because the timing of individual maturation can have great implications for training, competition, and talent identification, it is important to develop an effective method of assessing young athletes in which they are not subject to a maturity bias (1).

Why is maturation important for youth athletes?

The search for talent is widespread and prevalent in youth sports, where selection or exclusion in many sports follows a maturity-related grade, especially during puberty when youngsters reach peak height velocity. If you wish to read more about how age and maturity influence talent selection, then you should read our article on the relative age effect.

The goal of many sporting institutions and clubs is to develop those who have the potential for success at elite levels of competition (3). In many cases, however, the effectiveness of talent identification and development programmes often depends on the efficient allocation of available resources (human and economic) to the most talented youths (4). Unfortunately, in many sports, this maturity-associated selection has contributed to promoting the relative age effect. The relative age effect has been related to the participation and long-term achievement in sports, in part, as a result of the physical differences in athletes of the same chronological age (e.g. height, size, and strength), as well as the selection practices in annual-based age-grouped cohorts (5).

Maturation is a well-documented predictor of player fitness, performance, and selection in many youth sports such as soccer, baseball, ice hockey, and tennis (5, 6, 7). Athletes who are more biologically mature have been found to perform better in strength, power, and skills tests (6, 7). Moreover, during soccer games, early-maturing boys cover greater distances at high speed and perform more high-intensity actions than less mature boys (9). These performances create a false environment where early-maturing athletes are more likely to be successful and are thus perceived by coaches and scouts as more talented.

Consequently, early-maturing boys are more likely to be attracted toward, and selected, into sports where greater size, strength, and power are desirable attributes; for example, ice hockey, volleyball, soccer, Australian football, cricket, and rugby (4, 5). However, height differences among youth athletes are unnoticeable in late adolescence and early adulthood, therefore, the differences in performance become non-existent, or at least substantially reduced towards the end of adolescence (10).

Despite large maturity-related differences in children at an identical chronological age (e.g. 12 years old) (11), the standard and most accepted classification in youth sports settings remains by chronological age (i.e. age based on the calendar date on which they were born) (12). While this may be for practical reasons, it is important to know that many factors are involved in successful athletic performance in youth sports. In this sense, the physical characteristics determined by growth and maturation are an important part of a complex matrix, where children and adolescents are influenced by physical, psychological, cultural, and social factors (13, 14).

Key Terms

• Biological age – refers to the biological status or maturity of the athlete depending on whether they are a pre-adolescent, adolescent, or an adult.
• Chronological age – how long an individual has lived in years, months, and days.
• Maturation – refers to the progress toward the adult or mature state and can be defined in terms of status, timing, and tempo.
• Growth – changes in body size, shape, and composition.
• Youth – the period between childhood and adulthood.
• Relative age effect – refers to the immediate participation and long-term attainment in sports.

What is bio-banding?

“Bio-banding is the process of grouping athletes based on attributes associated with growth and maturation, rather than chronological age (e.g. under-15s)” (1). Proposals to match athletes based on physical attributes and maturity rather than chronological age have been attempted in several sports (2, 15). This strategy of grouping athletes together is based on early research by Baxter-Jones (1995) (16) and is currently referred to as “bio-banding” (1).

Athletes of the same chronological age can have a different biological age, thus, their differences in physical qualities (e.g. strength and speed) can be tremendous. Moreover, in some age group cohorts, the differences between some young athletes can be as large as several years of difference in biological age. This, in turn, is likely to affect the athletes’ development and performance (3).

Bio-banding tries to create an optimal environment where both earlier- and later-maturing athletes can thrive. By diversifying the learning environment through the creation of new and affordable challenges in the form of new settings (e.g. playing with younger/older peers), the process of bio-banding can, in theory, benefit both early- and late-maturing athletes (2).

For example, in a bio-banded environment where early-maturing athletes are competing against others of similar physical prowess, they will no longer be able to rely on their physical prevalence, and therefore, would be encouraged to use and develop their technical and tactical skills. It would also prepare them for future challenges where they may have to compete against equally, or more, mature players. This equalising approach would also benefit the late-maturing athlete, who would have a greater opportunity to demonstrate their physical and technical attributes (1).

Why is bio-banding important?

As children experience maturational events (puberty) at different ages, their physical, social, and psychological differences are likely to be extremely varied, even amongst children of the same chronological age (1). In addition, the timing of maturation has important implications for training, competition, and talent identification. As a result, bio-banding could be a suitable way of addressing the issues in each of the following categories.

1. Training
2. Competition
3. Talent identification

Training
Because physical attributes observed in youth athletes are considered to be poor predictors of success at the adult level (18), emerging evidence suggests that bio-banding as a complement to age-group competition, can benefit both early- and late-maturing athletes in academy football (soccer) (1). In terms of youth training, all fitness attributes are responsive to training stimuli at all ages, although some physical qualities (e.g. speed) may be more sensitive to adaptation at particular times of maturation (e.g. pre-peak height velocity) (19).

It is important to manage and supervise each athlete’s training programme according to their maturation status and current skill level. Moreover, the growth spurt is a period of elevated risk for overuse injuries, particularly Osgood-Schlatter disease. Therefore, the training load and the athlete’s health need to be closely monitored during the growth spurt to avoid overuse injuries (20, 21). Furthermore, as childhood and adolescence are periods in which motor skills are developed in abundance, it is therefore important for young athletes to focus their attention on their technical and tactical skills at this stage; both for their learning and for their future performance (22).

Competition

Competition is an integral component of youth sports programmes, where individual differences in growth and maturation have been shown to impact player performance and the development of young athletes (1). In this sense, young athletes who mature in advance (i.e. early-maturers) may experience a competitive advantage in some sports because of their physical size and athleticism, thus being perceived as better (23). For example, imagine an under-14 male rugby match in which one team’s average height and weight were 160cm and 50kg (i.e. early-maturers), whilst the other teams were 153cm and 44kg (i.e. late-maturers), respectively. This scenario may encourage the early developers to use their physical advantage and neglect their technical and tactical skills (3).

This temporary advantage and success will also, in many cases, carry less challenging experiences, which in turn may stagnate the young athlete’s development. It is for this reason that the early-developing athlete may often be badly prepared for future competition against physically-matched opponents (1).

Talent identification

It is also important to acknowledge the tremendous effect that maturation has on the identification and selection processes in sports. For example, late-developers have been shown to be 10 times less likely to be retained by elite football (soccer) academies (e.g. Manchester United Football Club and the Aspire Academy) (9).

In this context, some evidence suggests that bio-banding may provide a useful solution for such a problem by decreasing the impact of the relative age effect (24). This would, therefore, help institutions and clubs to retain talented athletes that may otherwise ‘slip through the net’. Finally, the current selection strategies that favour athletes based on attributes that are not fully developed until adulthood (e.g. size and strength), may have negative long-term effects on the athlete’s psycho-social development, in addition to their sporting success.

How do you bio-band athletes?

Recently, researchers and practitioners have begun to explore the potential benefits of grouping players by maturity status (bio-banding), rather than chronological age. This has, of course, raised the question of what is the best way to assess biological maturity (25). Due to the invasiveness and impracticality of assessing an athlete’s maturity status with some methods (e.g. via secondary sex characteristics) (26), alternative solutions have been utilised (1). At present, two non-invasive and low-cost anthropometric methods for estimating maturation have been used with young athletes:

1. The percentage of predicted adult stature/height (PAH)
2. The maturity offset.

The PAH is an estimation of maturity status and is calculated using the Khamis-Roche model (27). The maturity offset is an estimate of how far the child is from, or past, peak height velocity. Using the PAH at the time of observation, it is possible to group athletes into maturity categories (1).

These arbitrary maturity categories are:

1. Pre-pubertal (<85% of PAH)
2. Early pubertal (>85-90% of PAH)
3. Mid-pubertal (90-95% of PAH)
4. Late pubertal (>95% of PAH)

On the other hand, the maturity offset (i.e. the time away from peak height velocity) uses age, height, seated height, and weight to predict age from, and at, peak height velocity (28). This method is based on the logic that young athletes who are advanced or late in maturation, will experience peak height velocity earlier or later than expected. Although predicted maturity offset was suggested as a categorical variable, that is, as an indicator of maturity status (pre-, circa- or post-peak height velocity), it is often used as an indicator of maturity timing instead (1). In other words, how far the athlete is from peak height velocity.

Are there any issues with bio-banding?

Although bio-banding places athletes into groups based on physical characteristics, it does take into consideration the psychological and technical skills of the athletes. For example, an early-maturing athlete may be discouraged from participating in competition with older players if they lack the technical skills or the psychological maturity to handle the challenge.

Similarly, a late-maturing girl who is already thriving within her age group is unlikely to benefit from competing against others who are younger, but of similar maturity status. As a result, both psychological and technical attributes should be taken into consideration when grouping athletes based on maturation for training and competition (1).

Moreover, as a critical part of youth development, bio-banding also addresses the importance of the learning environment. It has been pointed out how factors such as social, psychological, and physical development are fundamental to the healthy development of children and adolescents (29, 30, 31). Addressing one, or several, of these factors will certainly contribute to the better development of young athletes. What is important though is whether or not young athletes enjoy being bio-banded or not, and new research suggests they do.

Is future research needed with bio-banding?

Bio-banding is not a common practice as there are still many questions regarding its efficacy. However, a number of positive benefits in important areas such as training, competition, and talent identification have been identified. While more research is required to replicate the initial findings and evaluate to which extent the results can be generalised, it has become necessary and imperative to determine its effectiveness and ultimately tries to understand its limitations in more detail. Some of the questions that may present themselves in the future are:

• From what age, or maturity development, do we start to bio-band athletes?
• How often do we need to bio-band in order to get the most benefit for the athletes?
• What criteria do we use to make exceptions for individual athletes’ participation in a certain band?
• Are the current measurement methods for maturity status optimal?
• How do we account for mental maturity, and how do we measure it in order to categorise the athletes?

Conclusions

Youth participation, development, and in many cases, success, is an important task for sports institutions around the world. As growth and maturity have been identified to play an important role in the development of young athletes as well as their performance in any sport, new methods of accounting for the maturity bias are needed. In this sense, it seems that bio-banding may have an important part to play in the future if it continues to demonstrate positive outcomes – especially since kids seem to enjoy it.

While more research is required to firmly state that bio-banding is an optimal method for long-term youth development, it may have the potential to become a trustworthy method of assessing the development of young athletes. Ultimately, this would help sporting institutions and clubs improve their talent identification and selection processes, minimising the rejection and release of talented and prospective athletes.

The post Bio-Banding appeared first on Science for Sport.