1. What is the sit and reach test?
2. What are the benefits of the sit and reach test?
3. What does the sit and reach test measure?
4. What is the procedure for the sit-and-reach test?
5. What is a good sit-and-reach score? 
6. Conclusion
7. References

What is the sit and reach test?

The sit and reach test (SR) is a widely used flexibility assessment that coaches, scientists, fitness professionals and teachers can use to evaluate the degree of movement available at both the hamstring and lower back in members of the public or athletes. Established in 1952 by Katharine Wells and Evelyn Dillon, the SR was introduced as a novel way for those working with athletes to monitor the levels of flexibility between participants in a quick and efficient manner (1). The SR was deemed an appropriate replacement for the former bobbing test, as issues with reliability and validity were consistently reported by those undertaking them. As a result of this, the SR would become one of the most internationally recognised methods utilised when looking to assess the flexibility status of an individual and is still used by many to distinguish where their players rank against their peers or compare nationally. 

The SR requires participants to gradually flex at the lumbar and thoracic spine, followed closely by the hip (pelvis) with the “reach” measured as a point of reference. The SR remains popular in many health-related studies, as maintaining hamstring and lower back flexibility may prevent acute and chronic back issues, poor posture, gait limitations and risk of falling (2).

What are the benefits of the sit and reach test?

The SR is a field test used to measure flexibility at the hamstring and lower back. Many studies use the SR, as these are typically inexpensive and easy to collect. For example, a competent practitioner could complete two tests in 60 seconds, allowing them to collect large data sets in a short time. With more equipment and a familiarisation protocol in place, a whole cohort of 30-60 athletes could be screened within one hour. This is particularly useful for sports scientists or teachers, who are typically allotted short periods of time to conduct such testing. In addition, training practitioners to collect this data, is relatively easy and cheap, lending to the popularity of this test amongst many disciplines.  

In following the correct protocol, individuals are asked to “sit” and “reach” as far as possible on the SR box. Their ability to reach far is one way that participants can be judged in terms of their flexibility. As well as the reach distance, which is often taken in centimetres, those collecting the data can also visually scan the movement, highlighting deficits at the hamstring (e.g. an inability to straighten the legs), or overhead mobility (e.g. lack or overhead extension when flexing at the hip). 

What does the sit and reach test measure?

As mentioned above, the SR is used to measure flexibility at the hamstring and lower back. This is particularly important for those working with athletes, as hamstring injuries are common in team sports athletes. For example, in a recent meta-analysis, Maniar and Colleagues (3) found that hamstring injuries represented roughly 10 % of all injuries in field-based team sports. Moreover, 13 % of athletes experienced a hamstring injury over a 9-month period, calling for more preventative strategies to be implemented within sports settings. In a more recent study, Cai et al., (2023) found that acute bouts (i.e. 6 weeks) of hamstring flexibility training was significant at reducing injury (4). Therefore, coaches must consider the impact of poor flexibility on injury, and monitor this variable with their athletes. 

When assessing back pain, this injury is common in both athletes and the general public, with roughly 7.5 % of the world’s population suffering from back pain (5). When an athlete presents reasonable levels of flexibility, muscles are better prepared to deal with the load of sport or daily life. For the general public, this injury also presents a socioeconomic burden by impairing an individual’s ability to function and work. 

Outside of the logistical considerations, those who adopt the sit and reach test may use this test for a host of reasons. One factor that practitioners may wish to investigate is the degree of extension available to an individual at the hip. For example, a lack of extension at the hamstring can decrease pelvic mobility (6) In turn, an individual with such deficits is susceptible to a host of biomechanical issues such as; thoracic hyperkyphosis, spondylolysis or changes in gait (7,8). For the general public, any change to the proper function and/ or alignment of the spine can result in lower back pain, increased risk of falls, and difficulty completing jobs such as manual labour. From the perspective of an athlete, such issues can impact performance, limiting an athlete’s ability to express force, whilst increasing injury risk. 

What is the procedure for the sit and reach test?

Although there are many ways that athletes are asked to perform the SR test, the most common methods are as follows:

1. The athlete/member of the public performs a dynamic warm-up, similar to those used in a RAMP protocol (9).

2. Following the warm-up, subjects should be given a visual demonstration of the test, allowing them to ask questions to overcome any misconceptions related to the test or ask for further elaboration. This demonstration should reinforce the need to keep the knees straight throughout the test.

3. Those being tested should remove their shoes, to overcome any issues that may impact both the validity or reliability of the test. Following this, they should be encouraged to place the soles of their feet at the base of the sit and reach the box, straighten their legs and sit in an upright position.
   
4. When looking down towards the box, the feet should be symmetrical, with the heels roughly 20 cm apart. The participant should place one hand on top of the other and slowly reach forward as far as possible. 

5. Movement should be smooth with little bouncing, with encouragement to hold the position for at least 2 seconds. These steps can be repeated three times to generate a mean score or best score.

In addition to the “typical” SR test, there are a few variations which can be seen below that can also be used when looking to assess flexibility. Alternatives are provided for many reasons, including; ease of use, appropriateness, or competence, but each variation may have more applicability to the participant. These consist of:

1. The Back-saver sit and reach test, is designed to test hamstring extensibility, with only one leg assessed. This protocol is safer on the spine as it restricts intervertebral flexion and can assess hamstring asymmetry (10).
2. The V-Sit and Reach Test requires no SR box but instead requires participants to reach as far forward to a measure on the floor. In addition, some subjects may need some support from others to keep their knees on the floor. The advantages of this test are that it requires little to no equipment, coupled with a simple procedure that many can use.
   
3. The modified SR test is a popular version of the SR test, as this accounts for differences in an individual’s anthropometry (e.g. longer legs or arms), which in turn can give false measurements. Participants are instructed to place their backs against a wall and reach forward to the box. This measurement is taken as their “zero”. Then, participants are invited to perform the normal sit and reach test, with their initial measure (i.e. “zero”) as their start point (11). 

What is a good sit and reach score?

When investigating normative data, what is “good” for one athlete or member of the public may not be good for another. For example, a gymnast should be expected to have greater levels of flexibility than that of a football player. Nevertheless, there are a host of reasons that may impact flexibility, such as:

• Age
• Gender
• Ethnicity
• Previous training experience
• Anthropometry (e.g. restrictions at the hip capsule)
• Previous injury
• Muscle fibre type
• Sport (12)

As a result, those performing the SR test should be objective between participants, whilst remaining mindful of any assumptions they may have. In addition, the sit and reach test can be a valid screen for other conditions such as hypermobility or various spine disorders (e.g. kyphosis), which can be useful to refer the patient to relevant support networks. With regards to normative data, the table below highlights a scoring system that you could use with your athlete/member of the public:

Table 1. Sit and reach performance values by age group and sex, adapted from Hoffman et al., (2019) with performance ranking applied as an example.

The SR test reports consistently high levels of reliability in both males and females (0.96 < 0.99) (14), justifying its continued use to gain quick and useful information for those assessed. 

Conclusion

The SR test remains useful when assessing flexibility at the hamstring and lower back in athletes and members of the public and provides a low-cost, easy-to-administer protocol that can be delivered to large groups. Although advancements in sports science and technology allow those at the “gold standard” of testing to gain more useful information about a muscle’s architecture (e.g. x-ray, ultrasound and surface electromyography), the SR test may still be useful for those with a smaller budget.

The post Sit and Reach Test appeared first on Science for Sport.

While female participation in soccer (football) is booming, much less is known about the strength and conditioning (S&C) support that females get in comparison to males.

By Tom Green
Last updated: December 20th, 2023
6 min read

Original study

McQuilliam, S. J., Clark, D. R., Erskine, R. M., & Brownlee, T. E. (2022). Mind the gap! A survey comparing current strength training methods used in men’s versus women’s first team and academy soccer. Science and Medicine in Football, (just-accepted).

Click here for abstract

Background & Objective

Typically, soccer has been a male-dominated environment. However, with promising trends in society, more females are getting involved in sport. For example, between 2010-15, female soccer participation increased by 32% globally (HERE). With this increase, females are deservedly being recognised for their skill and professionalism.

Despite the increase in population, coupled with a greater talent pool, much less is known about the strength and conditioning (S&C) support that females get in comparison to males. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyse this to support best practice.

What They Did

In total, 170 participants (U9-U23) took part in this study from Europe, the USA, and South America. To take part in this study, participants were required to be working within a men’s or women’s first team/academy setting and were currently involved with the S&C provision in the soccer club.

Participants completed a comprehensive online survey lasting roughly 17 minutes, designed to evaluate their participants over six categories. These included:

What They Found

The main findings from this study were:

[optin-monster-shortcode id=”jyyw4xzrpuivfz8gggx4″]

Practical Takeaways

This study found that relatively fewer women received training with free weights (83%) compared to men’s teams (97%). The gap widened when looking at more advanced training modalities, such as Olympic lifting. This highlights an opportunity for current practitioners, where regular CPD on the benefits of strength training for females must be explored by clubs. In this video, Erica Suter highlights the role that strength training can have on not only physical attributes, but on an athlete’s psychological state. Videos like Erica’s serve as a great way to introduce the idea to coaches.

This is important considering that female athletes show comparable improvements following strength work to men (HERE). As women receive relatively less S&C support than males, programmes designed for women’s teams are regrettably a privilege due to their lack of normality and should focus on reducing common injuries. Of these, injury to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) (see attached article) is the most common. Strategies to reduce ACL injury include:

Finally, those working with a men’s team have a responsibility to ensure that S&C expertise is discussed and placed into practice across all teams that a club covers. Whilst it is understandable that the complexities of working with a large club (i.e. financial pressure and competition schedule) make it challenging to share knowledge, all involved must make a more conscious effort to upskill and train staff for both performance and equality.

Tom Green’s Comments

“The findings of this study suggest there are key differences in the S&C practices between men’s and women’s teams. The fewer S&C sessions experienced per-week from women’s academy teams highlight either a lack of funding or emphasis placed on strength development and injury prevention in youth football. These findings were not consistent at the first team level, suggesting that they were strictly unique to lower stages of the clubs developmental infrastructure. This is concerning both from an equity standpoint, but also due to the increased recognition that females need to strength train. In the attached podcast, Joslyn Thompson and Andy Vincent discuss the safest ways to do this that are not only fun, but establish long-term behavioural change.

“Despite both sets of coaches having the same qualifications, S&C coaches involved with the women’s teams were more likely to use a subjective load prescription compared to men’s teams. This may lead to athletes either under or over achieving, which in turn, could lead to suboptimal levels of performance or an increased risk of injury and burnout. Future research could look at why these differences exist, using both quantitative and qualitative research to investigate this phenomenon in greater detail.

“Moreover, it would be great to see how academies use long-term athletic development models to influence and shape their programmes for different genders, with honesty about how they negotiate the sex-differences experienced at varied stages of growth and maturation.”

Want to learn more?

Then check these out…

Watch this video
Read this article
Listen to this podcast

Want more research reviews like this?

Every coach understands the importance of staying up-to-date with the latest sports performance research like this, but none have the time, energy, or even enjoys spending hours upon hours searching through PubMed and other academic journals. Instead, your precious time is better-spent coaching, programming, and managing all the other more important aspects of your job.

The solution…

The Performance Digest
The Performance Digest is a monthly summary of the latest sports performance research reviewed by our team of hand-selected experts. We sift through the 1,000+ studies published in the realms of sports performance every, single month and review only those which are important to you. Each monthly issues contains 15 research reviews in all of the following disciplines:

This comprehensive topic base ensures you’re constantly expanding your knowledge and accelerating your career as quickly as humanly possible. The reviews are also hyper-focused, 1-page summaries, meaning there’s no jargon or wasted time. We cut right to the chase and tell you what you need to know so you can get back to coaching.

Join the thousands of other coaches who read it every, single month. Click here to get instant access for free…

Tom Green

Tom Green is currently the Head of Athletic Development at St Peters RC High School in England. Tom has extensive experience in a range of sports at varied levels. He holds a BSc and MSc in Strength and Conditioning, is a qualified teacher, and sits on the UKSCA board for S&C in Schools.

More content by Tom

The post Women in sports: An investigation of strength training methods in men’s vs. women’s football appeared first on Science for Sport.

Youth development is highly complex and involves multiple key stakeholders. But how can coaches, teachers and youth athletes themselves best work together?

By Tom Green
Last updated: March 1st, 2024
10 min read

Youth athlete development: It’s all about teamwork

Despite the vast movements in sports science in recent years, the simplest of things, such as effective communication, can often go amiss. Take humans for example. Humans are innately social beings, who value the opinions and interactions of their peers to feel worth and self-efficacy.

When combined, opinions can be a powerful vehicle for personal development and growth. Such processes allow sports scientists to give their athletes the most informed and educated training methodology to drive performance.

Good inclusive communicators are skilled in their ability to concisely lay out a plan whilst causing little offence or alienation to others. Mastering this skill is increasingly important when multiple sports science agencies are involved in working with individuals or groups.

Take my line of work for example. I am the Head of Athletic Development at a Secondary School (11-19yrs) in England, where I deliver strength and conditioning lessons over a seven-year LTAD programme. Out of the 167 students I work with daily, at least 75% are coached by someone other than myself. Moreover, at least 37% receive strength and conditioning (S&C) support from at least two coaches. Over time, I have had to surrender something I hold dear when working with athletes: control.

At first, the very thought of competing with another coach’s programme is an innate challenge. My job, after all, places me in a position of responsibility to maintain and develop athletic qualities in a safe and ethical manner under one organisation. The term ‘sharing is caring’ doesn’t apply here acutely, as I’ve been involved in my fair share of unsuccessful collaborative work with external S&C coaches. But then I get a little bit excited – it can be a great opportunity to network, collaborate and spearhead a new journey for the athlete(s) at hand. Once I get into this head space, losing control doesn’t seem as intimidating.

When talking about control here, this isn’t inherently what everyone would instantly think. “You want all of the success for yourself” or “you are reluctant to share”. No. That’s not it. It’s more of a desire to avoid conflicting priorities. A bit of ego mixed with fear. “I know this athlete and I know what’s best for them” coupled with a work-load conundrum.  Who can blame me? The majority of research is in and of itself monodisciplinary in nature.

Benefits and downsides of a monodisciplinary approach

I read. I read a lot, in fact. While many of you are on your Kindles, reading illustrious stories and drifting into a sleepy state, I am sifting through PDFs and making notes. This probably isn’t healthy and I’m not an advocate of this approach; however, this has made me more aware of how poor research can be from a holistic sense.

Let’s say I read a hypothetical journal article titled ‘The influence of one-repetition max strength on speed in youth football players’ – sounds pretty good actually. As an S&C coach, I read this to understand the programming methodology, sets, reps, distances … the good stuff.  I apply my own biases and then think about how/if I should incorporate this into my system.

The reason I can do this is because I do not have to consult with other coaches, scientists or therapists – this is what I mean by a monodisciplinary approach. I work with my athlete and no one else. My relationship is strictly one-to-one and selfishly, I don’t have to worry about the opinions of others or how their programmes may interact with mine.

The benefits of this approach are there is little room for intragroup conflict, programming becomes more linear and thus predictable, and I have a strong handle on the programming direction for that individual. This happens in many schools across the UK and isn’t necessarily a bad thing. We do after all want children to receive S&C support for all of the known benefits. But what about if two coaches come into the equation, which often happens when young athletes play at clubs and organisations outside of school and receive coaching advice externally?
Now we have two coaches – I have my programme, they have theirs. This is an example of a multidisciplinary approach, where although collaboration is possible, both can still work independently of one another. The issue with this, although seemingly obvious, is many youths miss out on their ability to develop optimally due to conflicting programming: I set a heavy rep scheme, the other coach set a heavy rep scheme – and who suffers? The athlete, who is bombarded by a constant fluctuation of load and volume because two adults can’t send an email, pick up the phone, or better yet – meet in person.

Collaboration is key with youth athlete training

Another example I hear you say? Sure. This athlete also suffers with pre-match anxiety and consults with a sport psychologist. Meanwhile, the club’s nutritionist prescribes caffeine as an ergogenic aid to improve performance and heighten readiness, despite its anxiogenic properties. Here, two agencies are working with the individual but are having little to no contact, so while the athlete is benefitting from psychological support, they are still feeling tight-chested and nervous before competing. In the absence of communication here, both disciplines think they are doing right by the athlete.

Where there is little-to-no communication, those who are supporting an athlete become islands. Sure, they may make tiny gains in developing athleticism, but a collaborative approach has the benefit of widening the magnifying glass, allowing coaches, teachers and sports scientists to observe how different disciplines work together for the benefit of the athlete (See figure below).

Figure 1: Mono, multi, and inter disciplinary support and its ability to make meaningful change.
Unlike a multidisciplinary approach, interdisciplinary models attempt to align theoretical principles with practical delivery solutions in a coordinated and integrated manner. Collaborative problem-solving can support sports scientists in appreciating the diverse ways of thinking, approaching, and developing new systems or ways of practice. Although this may be considered the ‘gold-standard’ of collaboration, there are some considerations that need to be made. For example, interdisciplinary approaches heighten the risk of:

1. More experienced members are likely to dominate conversations and over emphasise the importance of their input.
2. Collaboration heightens the likelihood of the ‘risky shift’ phenomenon, where practitioners take poorly measured steps to gain social status.
3. Increases the likelihood of the groupthink phenomenon, where members agree to reduce conflict.

As you can now hopefully see, collaboration doesn’t always lead to improved productivity, so developing strong relationships that are built on trust, transparency and effective communication is key.

So how can coaches use this information practically? Well…

Youth athlete training – it all starts with a conversation

Getting to know your athletes is an essential part of being a great coach, teacher and sports scientist. Once you engage in conversations and develop rapport, you’ll be amazed at how much they will tell you. For example, you are midway through a set and all of a sudden, your athlete opens up to you out of the blue and says “we do something similar to this at our academy”. This can stop you in your tracks a little bit, but then you’re instantly filled with a little bit of excitement. Let’s go off topic for a paragraph:

Coaching 101 – Moments where an athlete confides that your work is similar to what they are doing at their academy or club marks a really great way to get buy-in. Once they tell you this, show as much interest as possible. Find out what they do, how they do it, and how they are coached through the movement. Reserve any judgement. Just let them speak to you and if it doesn’t harm your programme, even look to incorporate it. Now let’s get back on track…

Once you get the athlete’s permission, the first stage is to contact their coach. In my opinion, a face-to-face meeting is the best method for this, but a telephone/computer call is the second-best option. In the first encounter, the most important objective in my opinion is to be human. Topical subjects, discussing your relationship with the athlete and being empathetic to their role is important. If you go in with a righteous or entitled attitude, you may meet a coach who stands off and has a reserved opinion and/or is reluctant to help.

Promoting a positive environment in this first encounter is essential. Being accepting of their ideas and showing a strong willingness to share is a great way to remove any barriers that may exist. To elaborate on this further, encouraging the other party to describe their role with this athlete, being appreciative of their efforts and offering helpful feedback are all great ways to show shared purpose. People who feel appreciated are often inclined to speak again.

Get to know yourself – and the people around you

An issue I’ve had when meeting coaches before is having some form of bias. My biggest advice here is to drop your ego and go in with an open policy to change. Some of the collaborative partners with the biggest reputation have offered the lowest returns, whilst the ‘amateur’ coach has given me a thousand doses of wisdom.

However hard it may sound, don’t make inferences from the information you receive immediately. Coaches, parents and other sports scientists tend to jump to conclusions in the absence of context. I’ve done this many times. Conclusions drawn from pure speculation are very seldom accurate, especially when there is emotion involved. If you are unsure what an individual means, ask them to clarify and give them the opportunity to provide some more context. Usually, you can clear up any misconceptions here.

However, an important point to remember on your first encounter is not to be a pushover, especially if you are the first person to make contact. I’ve had plenty of encounters where coaches make assumptions about my programme. Striking a balance can be hard, but it’s really important that you do not undersell your priorities as well. Good relationships are reciprocal, and you can gain value by digging in your heels from time to time and showing that your intentions do matter. Avoid being aggressive/condescending, but just be firm and bring it back to the fact that you are there to help the athlete first and foremost. Listening more than you talk, nodding and offering your insight on the individual helps to reinforce your common purpose (the athlete).

In my experience, you can’t do everything in one call, so you better be prepared for the long-haul. A follow up email of “really enjoyed our conversation the other day, would like to do this again soon” shows a great sign of intent – you want to do this again, frequently. Simultaneously, you may want to contact the parent to say you’ve had a great chat with their club and are looking to align your programmes to help their son/daughter. The benefits of this are twofold. Firstly, the parents know you are offering a credible service to their child, and secondly, you establish a clear investment in their child’s long-term athletic development – it’s a win-win.

On the second meet/call, it’s good to bring some practical programming to converse about. As mentioned earlier, never play down the importance of your objectives. Power should be distributed evenly here, as you can help them as much as they can help you. By the end of this meeting, clear expectations should be set so that individuals know exactly who is doing what so that training priorities do not overlap. This is a great way to avoid injuries and overreaching.

The ‘who, what, how and when’ method is one of my favourites to introduce to a coach, as this is a clear contract outlining accountability (See Table 1):
Table 1: The who, what, how and when method for developing interdisciplinary collaboration.
Once this is established, you each have a fantastic blueprint for your programming. To establish trust in this method, it’s really important you don’t tread on their toes. Stay in your lane and do your bit really well. This simple method is accountability criteria. You do your bit and I’ll do mine, nothing more, nothing less.

You’ve taken some big strides … now what?

Now your relationship has been established, you need to maintain it. My top tips for maintaining your relationships is to continue to be open and honest about your progress. Here, you must have the confidence to talk openly about your project and any issues that you are facing along the way. Give yourself the same sympathy you would afford others who confide in you from an open and honest place. In turn, you will gain respect, trust and appreciation in your approach to youth development.

Regular messages help to maintain a relationship, so remember to make contact. My old-school method of a post-it note with a reminder to contact a coach/other member of the sports science team has since been replaced with a reminder app that tells me it’s time to contact ‘Joe Bloggs’. This is another great way to show the other party they are involved in your decision-making processes.

Now that you are in the ‘circle of trust’, look to expand this relationship to other members of the athlete’s support network. Over time, you can move towards providing interdisciplinary support which will lead to meaningful change (See Figure 2).

Figure 2
Finally, you must appreciate that this process can’t be rushed. Your willingness to help is great, but you need to make sure every encounter is a quality one. As you show that you are adding value, the veil will slowly be pulled back as you are introduced to more people who have influence with the coach. Such a process is a great way to network and who knows, it could open up job opportunities in the future.

[optin-monster slug=”nhpxak0baeqvjdeila6a”]

Tom Green

Tom Green is currently the Head of Athletic Development at St Peters RC High School in England. Tom has extensive experience in a range of sports at varied levels. He holds a BSc and MSc in Strength and Conditioning, is a qualified teacher, and sits on the UKSCA board for S&C in Schools.

More content by Tom

The post Youth athletes: How teachers, coaches and students can best work together appeared first on Science for Sport.

Despite the plethora of research surrounding talent identification, few studies, if any, have investigated if successful players make consistent improvements in their performance, or start and remain on top of the talent pool.

By Tom Green
Last updated: March 2nd, 2023
6 min read

Original study

Fortin-Guichard, D., Huberts, I., Sanders, J., van Elk, R., Mann, D. L., & Savelsbergh, G. J. (2022). Predictors of selection into an elite level youth football academy: A longitudinal study. Journal of Sports Sciences, 1-16.

Click here for abstract

Background & Objective

Talent identification and development is a highly complex and competitive process in many elite sports.

Progression through a talent identification pathway relies on a number of factors, such as performance data, technical and tactical knowledge, and suitability to the organisation’s culture. Therefore, coaches and sport scientists can play a large role in an athlete’s progression.

As competition increases, selection becomes an increasingly challenging process, where the smallest differences between athletes can be the defining factor in a successful transition into the senior team. Despite the plethora of research surrounding talent identification, few studies, if any, have investigated if successful players make consistent improvements in their performance, or start and remain on top of the talent pool.

Therefore, this study aims to explore the longitudinal relationship between talent variables and their relationship with development over time.

What They Did

One-hundred and ten youth football players (8-12yrs) participated in this study from a Dutch academy. Inclusion criteria required players to be in good physical condition and to be clear of injury/sickness throughout the study.

All athletes had the same programme, with no players being dropped during this longitudinal study lasting five years. To monitor predictors of selection, anthropometry, physical fitness (10, 20 and 30m sprint, a modified arrowhead agility test, standing long jump), gross motor skills test (KörperkoordinationsTest für kinder and Athletic Skills parkour test), technical ability (Loughborough passing test) and psychosocial capacities (Scale for Identification of Sport Potential) were tracked over five years.

Players were tested monthly and independent sample t-tests were used to assess differences in variables of those who were selected into the U13 team for every participant.

What They Found

The main finding of this study was that there were few differences in the developmental trajectories between selected and non-selected players between the ages 8-12. Although both selected and non-selected players improved, there was no sudden leap in performance variables through these age groups. However, greater identifiable features were found when using cross-sectional analysis.

These results indicated that among the players who progressed to the U13 team, the selected players were already superior in a number of talent indicators and maintained this advantage throughout the 8-12 phases of the programme. These included increased strength, speed, and conditioning. These identifiable factors were identifiable from the age of nine. The differences in gross motor coordination, footballing ability and psychosocial characteristics were far less obvious.

Out of all of the variables measured, sprint speed over 20-30m showed the highest correlation with selection, where faster players were more likely to be selected.

Practical Takeaways

From this study, coaches should look to chase physical development by providing regular and consistent strength and conditioning sessions. Given that ‘physicality’ and 20-30m speed are highlighted as desirable traits, S&C coaches can play a key role in developing these qualities. Considering children are not producing high levels of androgens between 8-12yrs, a majority of the adaptations to strength training will be neural in nature. Training approaches that will support this can be achieved by incorporating:

1. Heavy sled drags are a fantastic way to drive force adaptations whilst developing good sprint mechanics. Cumulatively, the results from a recent study (HERE) show the greatest gains in short-distance sprint speed were made when youth trained at loads greater than 50% of bodyweight over 6-9 repetitions. Before working at this load, I would recommend a far lighter load (10% of bodyweight) to develop a good technical base. In the attached video, sled drags are preferred to sled pushes as the arms are free to move with the contralateral leg. This is more ecologically valid to the key positions of sprinting (e.g. big arm split, horizontal lean and positive shin angles).
2. High levels of eccentric strength training – initial approaches to incorporating eccentric training can be achieved by performing exercises such as Romanian Deadlifts (HERE), hamstring sliders (HERE) and Nordic Hamstring exercises (HERE). These can be advantageous when looking to develop landing kinematics, eccentric strength, braking strength, and deceleration/change of direction ability. When incorporating eccentrics, the attached article recommends 1-2 sets of 6-8 repetitions for beginners, moving to 2-3 sets of 6-8 reps over 8-weeks. In addition to the strength improvements, eccentric exercises are highly effective as injury preventatives and muscle myofibrillar hypertrophy.
3. Improve ankle stiffness – ankle stiffness has a long association with sprint speed. In an athletic sense, stiffness describes the ability of the body or ankle to resist deformation. A stiffer leg-sprint should augment performance by utilising elastic energy. Stiff ankles show a high correlation with sprint speed and optimal stride length (HERE). To develop stiffness, plyometric tasks with short ground contact times are preferable. These may include ankling, skipping, pogo jumps and various hops. Asking youth to ‘follow a leader’ or create a trail is a fantastic way to keep S&C playful whilst working on ankle stiffness mechanics.

[optin-monster-shortcode id=”jyyw4xzrpuivfz8gggx4″]

Tom Green’s comments

“The results from this study indicate that although both selected and non-selected players benefit and improve as a result of training, a natural ‘gap’ does exist and continues to exist after years of training. Therefore, it is important that those who are less developed physically take steps to catch up to their more physical peers in order to influence the selection process. As well as seeking S&C support for physical qualities, my experience of talent identification has seen that individuals who do the basics well (e.g. punctuality, organised, friendly etc.) are also likely to succeed despite physical disadvantages.

“In the attached podcast, Jim Miller (Chief of Sports Performance at USA Cycling) suggests individuals who are motivated, employ a growth-mindset, build relationships, set goals and prioritise their development as athletes are more likely to perform at the highest level. My philosophy about working with youth completely aligns with this, as realistically not all will make it to the highest level. Therefore, the biggest credit our athletes can give to us when they leave is that they are good people, with strong values and identities. This places them in good stead to secure future opportunities in sport and employment, falling under the responsibilities of a holistic long-term athletic development (LTAD) programme.

Finally, sprint speed over 20-30m proved to be a factor that selection identified as significant. Therefore, coaches should look to continually develop sprint speed over acute distances (<50m), to ensure players stand a fighting chance of being advanced through the LTAD system. Those activities mentioned in the practical takeaways, coupled with some tempo runs (e.g. 50m in 6 seconds) should develop anaerobic qualities to drive sprint performance. Tempo runs should only occur when maximal sprinting technique (HERE) can be maintained.” 

Want to learn more?
Then check these out…

Watch this video
Read this article
Listen to this podcast

Want more research reviews like this?

Every coach understands the importance of staying up-to-date with the latest sports performance research like this, but none have the time, energy, or even enjoys spending hours upon hours searching through PubMed and other academic journals. Instead, your precious time is better-spent coaching, programming, and managing all the other more important aspects of your job.

The solution…

The Performance Digest
The Performance Digest is a monthly summary of the latest sports performance research reviewed by our team of hand-selected experts. We sift through the 1,000+ studies published in the realms of sports performance every, single month and review only those which are important to you. Each monthly issues contains 15 research reviews in all of the following disciplines:

This comprehensive topic base ensures you’re constantly expanding your knowledge and accelerating your career as quickly as humanly possible. The reviews are also hyper-focused, 1-page summaries, meaning there’s no jargon or wasted time. We cut right to the chase and tell you what you need to know so you can get back to coaching.

Join the thousands of other coaches who read it every, single month. Click here to get instant access for free…

Tom Green

Tom Green is currently the Head of Athletic Development at St Peters RC High School in England. Tom has extensive experience in a range of sports at varied levels. He holds a BSc and MSc in Strength and Conditioning, is a qualified teacher, and sits on the UKSCA board for S&C in Schools.

More content by Tom

The post Talent identification: What coaches are looking for in youth athletes appeared first on Science for Sport.

Early specialisation is one of the hottest debates in youth development circles. But what is all the fuss about, and which path is preferable?

By Tom Green
Last updated: March 1st, 2024
8 min read

Early Specialisation in youth athletes: What’s all the fuss about?

So, you want to be a professional athlete? Who doesn’t!
In society, you are taught that if you want to get better at something, you must repeat the process until mastery is achieved. School, employment, even relationships require deliberate practice to develop and maintain them. However, this can also backfire.

Take a talented mathematician in school as an example – should they just focus on math at the expense of science and English? No. Parents, teachers and students would understand that their holistic education is really important.

So why do we do the opposite when it comes to sport? Sit back, pause that podcast, and enjoy.

Specialisation case study

This is Tim.

Tim wants to be a professional football player. His parents take him to every training session, buy him all the new gear and pay for the top coaches to develop his football skills in hopes that it will improve his chances of success.

When Tim’s parents take him out, they are always boasting to their friends about how he is going to be a professional football player. By the ripe age of 10, Tim is never seen out of a football kit. He pretends his bike is a Range Rover and even rocks the Jack Grealish hair band at school – as you can see, he looks good.

Tim’s best friend, Rob, also plays football but is encouraged by his teachers and parents to play rugby and cricket as well. He also dabbles in a bit of casual swimming on the weekends with his other friends. Rob’s support network knows that intensive training, coupled with inadequate strength and conditioning provision and nutrition, is a recipe for disaster (see what I did there?). In addition, they know that focusing on one sport may negate the many benefits associated with multi-sport participation.

Fast forward six years, Tim and Rob are both playing on the same team at the same level, and their coaches are thinking about who is going to progress through the system.

Tim is really good, but keeps picking up small injuries throughout the season and has a limited repertoire of skills.

Rob, on the other hand, is robust and is socially more rounded from participating in other sports (e.g., rugby). Rob is an example of a late-specialisation athlete who has focused on a sport a bit later on, allowing him to refine and hone his technique through a variety of activities.

Rob has been filling his toolbox with a variety of tools (i.e., movements and skill sets), whereas Tim has simply sharpened the one tool he has. Tim has fallen victim to the early specialisation conundrum, which impacts so many youths in various systems.

Some of the negative consequences of specialising too early in one sport have been briefly demonstrated above. Put simply, Tim has made football his identity.

Let’s go down a path where Tim isn’t selected for an elite team. To Tim, this may feel like a criticism of everything he stands for, and although that’s not the case, as a young athlete, it can certainly be hard to deal with. None of us enjoy the feeling of rejection.

Tim is also going through adolescence, where he will experience significant alterations in hormonal status, physical growth, and social and cognitive processes. Now he’s not just lost his identity (“I know Tim, that’s the guy who wants to be the footballer”), but is also going through one of the biggest physical, emotional, and cognitive transitions of his life (adolescence). What a tough time.

Remember those pesky little injuries Tim kept getting? Well, youth athletes who specialise early are more prone to growth-related injuries (e.g., Osgood Schlatter’s disease), fractures, rotator cuff injuries, and ACL injuries – which are more prevalent in females. These can all be classified as overuse injuries, which are mostly due to repeated physical stress from performing similar movement patterns over and over again. In addition to these injuries, Tim has missed some parts of his childhood, which has contributed to him feeling somewhat out of touch with his peers.

Tim, like many, faces a conundrum created by society’s desires for immediate gratification, opportunities for social recognition and scholarships, and most frequently, adults imposing their own dreams and wishes on their child.

Is this always the case?

Okay, so I’ve sent you down one pathway (which admittedly was a little grim), now let’s go down another. Some sports, such as gymnastics, tennis, or ballet must be pursued from a young age, as these athletes can compete professionally from as young as 15. In addition, the skill sets required to be successful are often refined and honed over time to develop high levels of proficiency.

Take a look at this video of Simone Biles competing for the USA in gymnastics. Could you start this at 16? Of course. But in order to develop the strength, mobility, flexibility and skill required to do so, it would take years of expert coaching. Furthermore, by 16 years of age, you’ve likely already developed a whole host of bad movement habits (e.g., limited thoracic extension from excessive sitting), which make a back handspring look like something that should be in a Marvel movie, not the gym.

Specialising early in a sport can certainly have some advantages. For instance, participating within one environment (e.g., rugby) makes an individual very familiar with the language, culture, and tactics adopted within a club or sport. In return, coaches may perceive these individuals to be more receptive to the “way things are done” and treat them as a safe investment.

Early specialisation can and does work, but allowing athletes to sample other movements, for example, placing a tennis player into a game of football, would not harm the development of their primary sport skills – their tennis serve in this case. Instead, it can aid the development of other relevant performance characteristics – such as their footwork and ability to speed up (accelerate) and slow down (decelerate).

What can you do?

Early specialisation can increase the likelihood of burnout and overtraining, so it’s important players engage in a variety of sports to avoid tedium. Here are my top four tips to avoid some of the issues associated with early specialisation:

Think of a gymnast who at 15, decides that gymnastics is no longer for them. Which of their existing skills lend to other sports? They may have spent the last 10 years in static positions, with minimal focus on landing with their feet apart, evading, accelerating, throwing and catching – so, their skillset is clearly very specific to gymnastics. Therefore, it may be time to change it up and play some tennis, engage in a bit of parkour, or develop a new skill (e.g., rugby pass) in your free time. This will help keep you well-rounded whilst combatting some of the overuse risks discussed above.

Coaches shouldn’t make you feel bad or feel as though it will impact your selection in the future. If they do, it could be time to find a new one. In addition, playing sports should be fun, so it’s more than okay to want to play for your school team as well as your chosen club. If your coach understands what’s best for you, they may even excuse you from training if you’ve had a busy sports schedule – they should respect your need to rest and recover.

Do you actively create an environment that celebrates and encourages sport diversity? When a teammate does really well in another sport, celebrate it with them, their parents, the club, and the coach. This will foster a culture where everyone feels like they can, and should, play other sports to develop their skill set.  

Jump a stream, climb a tree and learn to fall. These are invaluable athletic skills that we must develop outside of sport. Your internal fear gauge (e.g., concluding “I simply cannot jump that height”) is a pretty good indicator of how safe a task is. This advice is not just for the ‘young’ however – you are never too old to go out and discover what your body can do!

Am I specialising?

It all comes down to this question. Even after reading this, you may feel like early specialisation is really bad – it isn’t. But, taking small steps that allow younger athletes to sample different movement patterns, personalities, and skills can be the difference between reaching success and struggling to unlock their potential.

This small graphic below, adapted from Myer et al. (2015), is a fantastic guide for players, parents and coaches to determine whether they, their child or their athlete, are in the realm of early specialisation.

Figure 1: (Adapted from Myers et al., (2015), p2).
If by the end of this process you are in the green box on the right, you might like to think about engaging in a basic level strength and conditioning program – focusing on movements such as the squat, hinge, and lunge patterns, push and pull variations, and bracing (e.g., planks). This will reduce your likelihood of serious injury and prevent those annoying little niggles from occurring (e.g., rolling your ankle).

If you arrive in the orange box, you should consider the above advice too, but more specifically, focus on some key injury prevention exercises such as Nordic hamstring curls, thoracic mobility, hip strength, and trunk control. You are approaching the status of early specialised athlete and need to monitor your schedule. Any additional stress (i.e., exams, increased fixture demands, or poor sleep) will elevate your risk of injury.

Find yourself in the red box? Time to seriously reconsider your weekly schedule. You are an early specialised athlete. If you answered yes to all three questions on the left, you could be at a high risk of injury, both general and overuse, which could mean missing a lot of time from your sport. Consider engaging in other sports and think about seeking the help of a strength and conditioning coach who focuses solely on youth.

Final comments

In simple terms, early specialisation may be defined as practice with high levels of domain specificity, focusing on one sport only. Late specialisation occurs when an individual enters the sport “late” – after sampling a variety of sports skills beforehand. Both have benefits but are largely context-dependent (e.g., based on the requirements of the sport).

In most cases, intense training in one sport at the exclusion of others should be delayed until middle to late adolescence, as early diversification is more likely to lead to success. For example, when the backgrounds of 300+ female intercollegiate athletes were investigated, it was discovered the majority had their first organised experiences in other sports. On the contrary, only 17 percent had exclusively participated in their current sport. This typifies the risk of early specialisation in youth, where the misconception that “more is better” doesn’t always ring true. However, it is important to acknowledge that early specialisation can work if the sport/education provider considers the risk of single-sport participation by ensuring that practice is diverse and many transferable sport skills are involved.

[optin-monster slug=”nhpxak0baeqvjdeila6a”]

Tom Green

Tom Green is currently the Head of Athletic Development at St Peters RC High School in England. Tom has extensive experience in a range of sports at varied levels. He holds a BSc and MSc in Strength and Conditioning, is a qualified teacher, and sits on the UKSCA board for S&C in Schools.

More content by Tom

The post Early specialisation in youth athletes: Pros, cons and considerations appeared first on Science for Sport.

By Tom Green
Last updated: April 28th, 2024
4 min read

Contents

1. Background & Objective
2. What They Did
3. What They Found
4. Practical Takeaways
5. Reviewer’s Comments
6. Want to learn more?

Original study

Madruga-Parera, M., Bishop, C., Fort-Vanmeerhaeghe, A., Beltran-Valls, M. R., Skok, O. G., Romero-Rodríguez, D. (2020). Interlimb Asymmetries in Youth Tennis Players: Relationships With Performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 34(10); p 2815-2823 doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000003152

Click here for abstract

Background & Objective

Tennis, by nature, is a multidirectional sport that requires individuals to perform numerous unilateral movements. For example, 70 % of movements that occur on a tennis court occur from a lateral position. Therefore, a difference in function or performance between limbs (i.e. interlimb asymmetries) can have significant effects on an individual’s ability to perform optimally.

The objective of this study was to investigate the asymmetries present in young tennis players during a fitness testing battery.

What They Did

Twenty-two elite youth tennis players (16.3 yr) were tested  over two days that were separated by a 72 h rest period, with each players’ training load decreased by 50% during the testing period to support testing performance. Day 1 consisted of three unilateral jump tests (countermovement jump (CMJ), broad jump, and lateral jump) and a 180-degree turn change of direction (CoD) test. On the second day, players performed a CoD task (shuffle and crossover step) that was resisted by an isointertial device (Byomedic System SCP).

All subjects performed three practice trials for all tests and a specific warm-up prior to testing, which consisted of 5-min of light jogging, dynamic stretches, and lower-body strength exercises (lunges, inchworms, and bodyweight squats).

What They Found

• The greatest levels of asymmetry were found on the single-leg CMJ (15.8%) and the smallest on the CoD tests (1.83%). With these scores considered, negative correlations were found between CoD asymmetries and the single-leg CMJ on the dominant and non-dominant side. This suggests that when used together, CoD and jump tests do not accurately describe the asymmetry profile of an individual.
• Differences between limbs for all tests was reported, with the dominant limb (eighteen athletes had right side dominance) being the stronger side in all tests.
• The CoD tests revealed a lower degree of asymmetry compared to the jump tests. This suggests that CoD tests may not be as sensitive as jump tests at revealing imbalances. Factors, such as linear speed, have previously been found to mask poor unilateral performance in CoD tasks (see HERE). Secondly, no relationship was found between the results of the 180-degree CoD test and CoD isointertial test.

Practical Takeaways

• The aim of any good long-term athletic development programme is to eliminate an over-reliance on a single strategy (e.g. taking off from only the right foot from a 90-degree cut when cutting from the left leg could be more advantageous to return a shot). Practically, ensuring that coaches tally up repetitions from the right- and left-hand side of the body allows coaches to document how many CoD movements are performed on both limbs during a session. This ensures that we are doing our bit to prevent overuse injuries during closed tasks.
• According to Bishop and colleagues (see HERE), a defining factor in effective CoD performance is the range of motion at the ankle. They suggest that a greater range of motion provides enhanced stability and balance ability, which allows athletes to “bank in and out” of a movement faster. In the attached video, a host of exercises such as single-leg RDL’s, squats, box step-ups, and skater hops with reaches can be seen. These movements create a fantastic foundation for young athletes, but further, will support athletes in developing ankle range of motion in a dynamic manner. Using 2 sets x 10 reps of these exercises in a warm-up will make a huge difference over acute periods (4-6 weeks) and should help tennis performance.
• Inter-limb asymmetries will, for the most part, exist due to the natural preference of an athlete to move a certain way. High imbalances between limbs can be a strong predictor of injury but is not necessarily a reason to act immediately. For example, in the podcast below, Chris Bishop discusses that when measuring asymmetries, coaches must ensure that this is done often (every 2-4 weeks) so that the imbalance is not purely a data anomaly. Consistency, bilateral (e.g. front/back squat), and unilateral (e.g. pistol squats, reverse lunges) training are the recommendations for reducing imbalances.

Reviewer’s Comments

“This study provides practitioners with a guide to test lower-limb asymmetries. Monitoring of inter-limb asymmetry is important, as athletes who show higher levels of asymmetry (>15%) between-limb difference are at a greater risk of lower- limb injury. Furthermore, although limb dominance is relatively normal, reductions in jump height and CoD performance have also been previously reported (see HERE) when a large imbalance is present. This will be detrimental to tennis performance, so ensuring that these are monitored is important.

A limitation of this study though, is that the participants’ stage of maturation was not considered. In the attached article, Madruga-Parera and colleagues reported that higher levels of asymmetry were present circa-peak height velocity than those who were pre-/post-peak height velocity. The authors attribute this to a temporary loss in motor control, commonly known as “adolescent awkwardness”, which occurs during PHV and results in compromised physical outputs. Future studies must consider this in a youth cohort to ensure data validity. Finally, both CoD tests were poor at revealing asymmetries. Jump testing may be a more time-effective and reliable test to measure inter-limb asymmetries.”

Want to learn more?

Then check these out…

Watch this video
Read this article
Listen to this podcast

Tom Green

Tom Green is currently the Head of Athletic Development at St Peters RC High School in England. Tom has extensive experience in a range of sports at varied levels. He holds a BSc and MSc in Strength and Conditioning, is a qualified teacher, and sits on the UKSCA board for S&C in Schools.

More content by Tom

The post Chasing Symmetry: Inter-limb Imbalances & Performance in Youth Tennis appeared first on Science for Sport.

Contents

1. Background & Objective
2. What They Did
3. What They Found
4. Practical Takeaways
5. Reviewer’s Comments
6. About the Reviewer
7. Comments

Original study

Stern, D., Gonzalo-Skok, O., Loturco, I., Turner, A., and Bishop, C. (2020). A Comparison of Bilateral vs. Unilateral-Biased Strength and Power Training Interventions on Measures of Physical Performance in Elite Youth Soccer Players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 34(8); 2105-2111.
Click here for abstract

Background & Objective

The modern football player must consistently demonstrate competence through a host of physical qualities (e.g. acceleration, agility, change of direction). All of these are dependent on both bilateral (double-limb) and unilateral (single-limb) actions. Moreover, both actions have been previously shown as effective methods for developing various markers of athletic performance (see HERE). Based on this knowledge, the authors of this study determined whether bilateral and unilateral training enhanced the performance characteristics, and secondly, explored which training method is potentially more effective for youth athletes.

What They Did

Twenty-three elite youth players (17.6 years) were randomly assigned to either a unilateral (n = 11) or bilateral (n = 12) group. Strength sessions were completed twice a week for six weeks, with the unilateral group (UG) completing rear-foot elevated split squats (RFESS), single-leg countermovement jumps (CMJ), single-leg drop jumps (SLDJ), and single-leg broad jumps (SLBJ). The bilateral group (BG) performed back squats, CMJs, drop jumps (DJ), and broad jumps (BJ). Both performed between 3-4 sets of 3-6 reps. To investigate the impact of bilateral and unilateral training, one-rep maximum (1RM) was compared between the two groups for the squat and RFESS in addition to further measures, such as CMJ, DJ, BJ, 10- and 30 m sprints, and a 5-0-5 COD test.

What They Found

⇒ In the BG, significant improvements were found for 1RM back squat, 1RM RFESS, BJ, and 10- and 30m sprint speeds.

⇒  In the UG, the authors reported that 1RM RFESS, SLCMJ (left-leg), SLBJ (left-leg), 10m, and 5-0-5 right-leg times improved over the 6-week period.

⇒  Between-group measures (unilateral vs. bilateral) showed that both types of training were effective at improving performance, with no intervention proving to be more successful.

⇒ Once standardised, it was reported that the type of testing used was matched to the training method used. In other words, unilateral training methods seemed to favour unilateral testing (i.e. SLCMJ), whereas bilateral methods seemed to benefit double limb tests (i.e. back squat).

Practical Takeaways

⇒ Six weeks of structured strength and plyometric programme is sufficient to improve force characteristics. More specifically, working at loads between 75-85 % of 1RM for 3-4 sets of 3-6 reps is recommended.

⇒ Improvements in force production often coincide with strength development which serves as an injury-preventative method for youth athletes (see HERE). For example, the article below found a -50 % risk of injury after six months of regular S&C support in children of 10-12 years. The video below provides some fantastic and fun examples that can be instantly adapted for youth. Additionally, these provide an opportunity to develop the fundamental skill of balance.

⇒ From personal experience, building an individual’s understanding of a bilateral derivative only serves to speed up the learning of the unilateral variation. However, on performance alone, the current study suggests that over six weeks no differences are seen. In addition to this, single-leg training over longer periods (16 weeks) can have a cross-education effect, where training the left limb directly improves the force characteristics of the right limb (see HERE). This can not only support performance but serve as a valuable catalyst for recovery in injured players.

⇒ With reference to the above, an individual of 13 yr with a 1RM of 70 kg for a deadlift over 5 reps would move 250 AU (load x reps) in a session. However, they may be able to move 37 kg in a single-leg contraction for 5 reps for a total of 185 AU. Assuming that they could do this for both legs, the total AU would be 370. Therefore, whilst the use of single-leg work may have some advantages, including them in a preseason programme rather than in-season may lead to more favourable performance and development since training can potentially be longer due to greater recovery time.

Reviewer’s Comments

“The debate for coaches on using single- vs. double-limb movements may continue for quite some time. Whilst some coaches argue that single-limb exercises pose a greater requirement for stability, double-limb exercises allow individuals to move more load in a shorter amount of time. If coaches still need more information to support their programming, I’d highly recommend listening to Cal Dietz on the attached podcast. Here, Cal discusses how and when he programmes unilateral training and bilateral training, the hormonal response to these exercises, and some exercises that complement each other (e.g. back squat and a single-leg box squat).

In practice, coaches must remember that a loss of stability when undertaking unilateral variations often indicates that an athlete is learning to control their limbs through proprioception and can reflect learning, rather than low muscle strength. According to the concept of training specificity, it is unsurprising that training single-leg exercises would only serve to benefit single-leg measures and vice versa. Whilst I’d always advocate including both bilateral and unilateral training if an athlete comes to you with an acute goal (e.g. increasing their bilateral back squat), avoiding unilateral variations may be advised based on this study.”

Want to learn more?
Then check these out…

Watch this video
Read this article
Listen to this podcast

The post Unilateral versus Bilateral Training in Youth Football Players appeared first on Science for Sport.

Contents

1. Background & Objective
2. What They Did
3. What They Found
4. Practical Takeaways
5. Reviewer’s Comments
6. About the Reviewer
7. Comments

Original study

Gavanda, S., Geisler, S., Quittmann, O., and Schiffer, T. (2019). The Effect of Block Versus Daily Undulating Periodization on Strength and Performance in Adolescent Football Players. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 14(6); 814-821.

Click here for abstract

Background & Objective

Muscle strength and power are important for many athletic endeavours such as speed, change of direction tasks, tackling ability, and injury prevention. Developing these through a periodised approach, which could be described as a considered and progressive plan is important. This study compared the effects of a block periodised model (BLOCK), where the load is typically increased in a linear manner, versus daily undulating periodisation (DUP), where the load is more sporadic over numerous days, on both anthropometric and physical qualities.

What They Did

Forty-seven subjects (aged 17 ± 0.8 years; strength training experience = 0.93 ± 0.99 years) participated in a 12-week S&C programme. The following assessments were collected before and after this period to examine which model was better:
⇒ Anthropometric: body mass (kg), fat mass (FMkg), body fat percentage (relFM), fat-free mass (FFM), muscle mass (MM), muscle thickness (vastus lateralis (VL), M. rectus femoris (RF) and M. triceps brachii (TB).

⇒ Physical: one-repetition maximum (1RM) (Back squat and bench press), countermovement jump (CMJ), peak power (Wpeak), medicine ball put (MBP), and 40 yd sprint (sec).

Subjects were randomly assigned in either the BLOCK or DUP group prior to the 12-week intervention period consisting of 3 full-body sessions per week.

What They Found

This study found that both the BLOCK and DUP periodised model to be a highly effective training method for adolescent football players over a 12-week period. More specifically, both training models displayed significantly higher BM, relFM, FFM, MM, RF, VL, TB, BS, BP, CMJ, wPeak and significantly lower sprint times. However, DUP was more effective at reducing fat mass and body fat percentage. As such, both a BLOCK and DUP periodised model appear to be highly effective for increasing muscle mass, strength, power and performance in adolescent football players.

Practical Takeaways

This study reported that there may be no clear differences between a BLOCK and DUP model when working with adolescent athletes which can support your coaching practice. Whilst those undertaking the DUP approach benefited from reduced fat mass and body fat percentages compared to BLOCK, this could be attributed to external factors, such as nutrition, which the researchers could not control. Nutrition can be a grey area for S&C coaches, so using external resources (such as the video link below) can be invaluable as an avenue for player/parent education.

With the findings of this study showing that no periodised model holds a distinct advantage over the other, the question is “Should we periodise at all?” In the attached article, Grgic et al., (2018) (see article link below) compellingly argue for avoiding periodised training altogether. As mentioned in the ‘Objective’ part of this study, BLOCK periodisation builds competence through repetition and gradual progression, whereas the theoretical basis for DUP lies in training variety for stimulation of greater strength development and related characteristics. However, as stated by Grgic and colleagues, it could be argued that so long as strength training is challenging, safe, and progressive, the “what” and “how” of the programme may be irrelevant with regards to development. A balanced approach as seen in the video may be a good starting point for any aspiring youth S&C coach.

Reviewer’s Comments

“Being a relatively new discipline, S&C coaches can be eager to please and provide evidence-based programmes for optimal development. I am not by any means suggesting that we should avoid such an approach, as conscious and considered practice will elevate our quality and produce more jobs in the future. However, as coaches, it may benefit us to stand back and read the cultural waves of a team to fill in the movement gaps that are left by childhood. An overly structured approach does not always take into account external factors such as school stress, fixtures, or personal issues which should be considered. If players are unpredictable in terms of energy, competence, and attitude, coaches may need to get better at “reading” the social landscape and being pliable enough to move around their needs. At no point should this deter from the fact that they will need regular and progressive strength training to attain higher performance.”

Want to learn more?

Watch this video
Read this article
Listen to this podcast

The post Block vs. undulating periodisation: how does this impact performance? appeared first on Science for Sport.

Contents

1. Background & Objective
2. What They Did
3. What They Found
4. Practical Takeaways
5. Reviewer’s Comments
6. About the Reviewer
7. Comments

Background & Objective

Many soccer-specific movements involve high velocity concentric and eccentric muscular contractions involving the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC). In this regard, plyometric training (PT) is known to improve SSC function and soccer performance.

The main objective of this study was to investigate the effects of multidirectional plyometric training (MPT) on several performance variables related to soccer in young children.

What They Did

The participants were twenty-eight male soccer players from a soccer academy aged 11.6 ± 0.8 yr). These participants were randomly assigned into an experimental group (EP) (n = 14) or a control group (n = 14).

The EP group were introduced to an 8-week MPT programme performed twice a week. The control group maintained their regular training routine. The programme consisted of three exercises per week in a vertical-anterior-posterior plane, vertical-lateral, and vertical-anterior-posteriorlateral plane.

To assess vertical jump height, a squat jump and countermovement jump were used. Agility-based performance was investigated using an agility T test. Finally, the star excursion balance test was used to assess dynamic postural control.

What They Found

The results of this study found that the MPT enhanced three important qualities that are relevant to the performance of young male soccer players. For the squat jump, a significant group x time interaction was observed (p < 0.05). For the countermovement jump and t-test, significant group x time interactions were also found in the EP (p > 0.05). However, the control group showed no significant improvements (p > 0.05).

Finally, dynamic postural control performance improved in seven axes in the dominant and non-dominant leg. Again, no significant results were found in the control group (p > 0.05).

[optin-monster-shortcode id=”jyyw4xzrpuivfz8gggx4″]

Practical Takeaways

• MPT proved to be an effective method of improving jump and change of direction performance. These qualities are essential to develop throughout a season, but should be progressed over time to avoid any overuse injuries. To support this, the attached resource from Michael Beale (see HERE) offers 126 effective warm-ups that are multidirectional in nature. When periodised, these can be highly effective at developing performance characteristics in soccer.
• To assess dynamic postural control, the star excursion test was used. This test is not only effective at assessing balance in both the dominant and non-dominant leg but can be used as a method to track strength, range of motion, proprioceptive control, and limb asymmetry. In the video below by PhysioTutors, some calculations that assess singlelimb function in the vertical-anterior-posterior plane, vertical lateral, and vertical-anterior-posterior-lateral plane can be implemented in practice.
• Multidirectional plyometrics, in particular to the side (lateral) and backwards (posterior) are a relatively advanced plyometric exercise that places high stress on the muscle-tendon system. In-place plyometrics require high levels of coordination and body control, so before advancing to multi-directional plyometrics, I would advise that players follow a protocol similar to the one offered by Rob Pacey (see HERE).

Reviewer’s Comments

“The present study was based on a progressive, moderate-intensity exercise programme to minimise the risk of injury. This study is unique in its application of jumping in multiple directions, suggesting that this is not only safe but an effective method of developing athletic performance. In the attached podcast, Lee Taft discusses the role of multidirectional development in athleticism, suggesting some of the ways he incorporates drills which allow “free play”, and then evolves them into more complex and extensive change of direction tasks.

In the absence of growth-related hormones seen in children, the authors suggest that the improvements seen in this study are most likely associated with improved neuromuscular performance. Furthermore, as a result of improved muscle-tendon behaviour in the agonist and antagonist muscles during jumping, improvements in the concentric (squat jump: = + 11.14 %) and plyometric (countermovement jump = + 9.91 %) were seen. However, measuring strength alongside this, with the use of a handheld dynamometer, for example, would have supported this claim. In conclusion, such a program should be appealing to coaches as it requires very little time to complete, whilst showing some impressive results.”

Want to learn more?
Then check these out…

Watch this video
Read this article
Listen to this podcast

The full study can be read here.

The post Multidirectional plyometrics: how do these impact jump, change of direction, and dynamic postural control? appeared first on Science for Sport.

Contents

1. Background & Objective
2. What They Did
3. What They Found
4. Practical Takeaways
5. Reviewer’s Comments
6. About the Reviewer
7. Comments

Background & Objective

Complex movements require large muscle groups to work together and are often pursued in a resistance programme as they offer a high physical ‘return to time’ ratio. At times, strength programmes could be criticised for avoiding smaller muscle groups, such as those of the cervical spine, which are very important as a preventative measure for injury and concussion.

Collision sports such as rugby and American Football have recently placed a high emphasis on neck-related strengthening, due to the nature of the sport (head contact, neck/shoulder collision) and the volume of concussion. In football, however, few authors have pursued this line of thought, which Wilson and colleagues have addressed in their investigation of a cervical strengthening programme over 6 weeks.

What They Did

Eighty-three athletes (male and female) aged between 14 and 15 were assigned to either an intervention group (n = 50) or a control group (n = 33). The intervention group performed a web-based cervical exercise programme, progressing through a majority of isometric exercises in phase 1, concentric in phase 2, and eccentric contractions in phase 3 over 6 weeks. The webpage consisted of demonstration videos of the exercises and instructions for the warm-up.

The control group received no specific cervical strengthening work, to see how the intervention group benefitted when compared to a ‘typical’ adolescent. To measure all variables, an Ergo FET Push-Pull Force Handheld Dynamometer was attached to a head strap, and measured isometric cervical strength, flexion, extension, right lateral flexion and left lateral flexion in Newton’s (N).

What They Found

In this study, the intervention group significantly increased left lateral flexion (24.1 [15.9-32.4 ± SD]), extension (27.9 [18.4-37.5]), right lateral flexion (18.8 [11.6-26.1]), and flexion (1.2 [1.1-1.2]). In comparison, the control participants did not reveal any significant changes in cervical neck strength. Interestingly, an increase in neck size (0.8-0.9 cm) was also found in both the control and intervention group.

Despite this, only the intervention group demonstrated strength improvements. This was therefore attributed to normal growth patterns seen in adolescents, and not exclusively as a result of muscle hypertrophy from the protocol.

Practical Takeaways

This study suggests that performing 4-6 strength exercises over 3-7 days, depending on the phase can significantly improve cervical neck strength. Increasing cervical strength is important for youth athletes, as this decreases the risk of head/neck injury and concussion risk.

What is important to take away is that for every pound gained in neck strength (equivalent to 4.45 N) the risk of concussion decreases by 5%. According to this study, typical improvements can range from 8 to 50% when pursuing a neck strengthening protocol. As a result of this, players may wish to incorporate some neck related work in their sessions.

In addition to proving effective as an intervention, this protocol benefits from being a relatively cheap initiative, costing little, if anything to replicate. As a result of this, schools or clubs on a budget can have an immediate impact on performance and injury prevention for free. As a resource, please see this poster (HERE) that can be placed inside your gym/handed out to athletes to complete, with a series of pictures, cues, and progressions.

Reviewer’s Comments

“When reading an article, I’m always looking to understand how this could look in practice. By following this protocol, the participants have clearly produced some impressive results, and considering the risk associated with concussion described in the attached video (HERE), it is not surprising that we’d want to reduce this risk.

However, the following question has come to mind: ‘Would an adolescent follow this routine unsupervised?’. I fear that ‘buy-in’ from grassroots players would prove challenging, with many struggling to adhere to this on a daily basis. In addition, paired work may prove challenging, as some adolescents may not manage this task maturely and could cause undue harm to a peer.

Hypothetically, if all of our athletes did complete this protocol 3 or more times a week, we would have to ask ourselves as practitioners if this is the best use of their time. In contact sports (rugby, Muay Thai, racing etc.), this may be considered an easy win on the athletic development journey, as the risk of concussion may be high.

However, in football or athletics, the risk of an ACL injury, hamstring, or ankle injury may be far greater and worthier of their training time. Moreover, pursuing these qualities may support other athletic aptitudes (strength, power, speed as examples), which could also support performance and injury prevention. With limited time as a practitioner, it may be more beneficial to tackle areas where there is an increased likelihood of injury built on the sports need analysis. In my own practice, I’m going to include two isometric neck strengthening activities every session (3 times a week) for a few weeks as part of the warm-up to see how this goes.”

Want to learn more?

Watch this video
Read this article

The full study can be read here.

The post Improving neck strength during adolescence: Risk, recommendations and benefits appeared first on Science for Sport.

Your weekly research review

By Tom Green
Last updated: March 15th, 2023
5 min read

Background & Objective

Sport can be an incredibly fulfilling experience, physically, psychologically, and emotionally. In a society run by technological advancement, many still find comfort in participating in sport at all levels. Unfortunately, many children remain either inactive, or are “pushed” into participation. Voluminous and repetitive participation in sport can result in overuse injuries, burnout, and even dampened enjoyment. This study introduces the reader to a novel instrument to assess the driving factors behind participation, with an aim to reduce the negative connotations that accompany early sports specialisation.

What They Did

This study collected survey data from 235 athletes between the ages of 7-18 years old. The children were afforded a parent/coach-free opportunity to express their opinions in a survey. This survey was designed by an interdisciplinary team, consisting of orthopaedic surgeons, physical therapists, athletic trainers, and training academy staff. The survey consisted of two sections, and the data was analysed based on a 5-point Likert-type scale, as seen below.

Section 1 – Participants demographic data such as age, sex, injury history, and self-reported competence
Section 2 – 15 questions discussing factors influencing participation

What They Found

On average, players began to specialise in one sport at 8.1 ± 3.6 years, with 74% of these reportedly suffering a sports-related injury. To define the higher-tier of specialisation, players were asked questions regarding their participation. It was found that of the 74% of those who were classed as highly-specialised, spent 9 or more months of the year in one sport. Furthermore, players with an injury history were more likely to participate all-year round. These players were often told by a coach not to participate in other sports, though this study failed to dig deeper and reveal why this was their (the coach’s) opinion. Half of the children reported that sport was interfering with their academic success, but felt external pressures to participate (e.g. they had wishes to attend college); this was more common with older players.

[optin-monster-shortcode id=”jyyw4xzrpuivfz8gggx4″]

Practical Takeaways

Despite our ever-growing knowledge of the need to provide rounded sporting experiences, youth sports specialisation is actually increasing. This study also found that specialisation was linked to injury, burnout, and dissatisfaction. As a result of this, it is important that children do not spend over 9 months focussing solely one sport to combat these issues. When designing sessions, it is important that children are both passengers and drivers on their learning journey. The attached podcast discusses Bernstein’s theory of ‘repetition without repetition’, which may prove valuable for children who are highly-plastic and can benefit from high-levels of variety in the learning journey.

In the instance of an injury, the authors of this research article suggest that coaches, players, and parents must understand the internal and external pressures that may have led to this injury. This should not be a blunt conversation, but a considered approach that dissects all of the psychosocial factors that may have contributed to the injury. Whilst it is important that we should value aspiration and drive to succeed, we must remind those in charge of any child that their developmental interests are at heart and excessive pressure may impact their chances of succeeding. As the reader, you may wish to use statistics to support a conversation. For example, in this research article, 97% of sports professionals accredited their success to early multi-sport development. This may help to defuse any tension and potentially educate the parent who may easily think that more practice will benefit their child to succeed in that sport.

Reviewer’s Comments

“Based on the numerous research articles published regarding early vs. late specialisation, it would seem fairly obvious that children should not specialise in only one sport. Providing a child with access to multiple-sports will support a child in developing multiple solutions to the unpredictable, and sometimes chaotic, nature of sport. For example, a child who develops the ability to rotate and dissociate between the upper- and lower-body in a sport such as tennis, may be able to transfer these skills to other sports. This could be further demonstrated by a player who has to rotate to catch the ball in Rugby, or time a run in football by looking over a shoulder.

To move forward as a discipline, it is important that coaches are continually empowering one another through education and challenging long-held notions regarding youth development. I strongly believe that when a child has fun and can develop their own solutions to coach-created problems (i.e. an obstacle or technical issue), they begin to learn from the journey and develop ownership and confidence, which can therefore develop them into a better person and athlete. Many of the benefits of sports participation have been discussed in the attached article link, but the development of the person should be emphasised alongside technical prowess in the early years. This will ensure that children enjoy sport and are therefore more likely to participate for many years to come.”

Want to learn more?
Then check these out…

Watch this video
Read this article
Listen to this podcast

The full study can be read here.

Want more research reviews like this?

Every coach understands the importance of staying up-to-date with the latest sports performance research like this, but none have the time, energy, or even enjoys spending hours upon hours searching through PubMed and other academic journals. Instead, your precious time is better-spent coaching, programming, and managing all the other more important aspects of your job.

The solution…

The Performance Digest
The Performance Digest is a monthly summary of the latest sports performance research reviewed by our team of hand-selected experts. We sift through the 1,000+ studies published in the realms of sports performance every, single month and review only those which are important to you. Each monthly issues contains 19 research reviews in all of the following disciplines:

This comprehensive topic base ensures you’re constantly expanding your knowledge and accelerating your career as quickly as humanly possible. The reviews are also hyper-focused, 1-page summaries, meaning there’s no jargon or wasted time. We cut right to the chase and tell you what you need to know so you can get back to coaching.

Join the thousands of other coaches who read it every, single month. Click here to grab your FREE copy…

[optin-monster-shortcode id=”nhpxak0baeqvjdeila6a”]

Tom Green

Tom Green is currently the Head of Athletic Development at St Peters RC High School in England. Tom has extensive experience in a range of sports at varied levels. He holds a BSc and MSc in Strength and Conditioning, is a qualified teacher, and sits on the UKSCA board for S&C in Schools.

More content by Tom

The post What the kids have to say early sport specialisation appeared first on Science for Sport.

1. Background & Objective
2. What They Did
3. What They Found
4. Practical Takeaways
5. Reviewer’s Comments
6. About the Reviewer

Background & Objective

Bio-banding is the process where players are grouped based on maturational qualities rather than chronological age and has become a popular and controversial topic in youth sport. The theory is that bio-banding results in a greater quality of practice and potentially a reduced risk of injury. However, like many research articles that are released, they forget to question the most important part of any intervention – the athlete. Luckily, the authors of this study have you covered, as the primary aim of this one was to investigate youth players within Premier League academies and their experiences of bio-banded tournaments.

What They Did

This study collected data from 66 academy soccer players (aged 11-14) that were measured to be at 85-90% of their predicted adult stature using the Khamis-Roche method. Four academies (Southampton, Stoke, Reading, and Norwich) entered a team with squad sizes of roughly 16-17 players drawn from the U12-U15 competing teams. Players competed in three 11 vs 11 games on a full-size pitch with two 25-min halves.

Of all these players, 16 (4 by each club) were invited to participate in a series of four semi-structured focus groups. These focus groups consisted of both written and spoken elements, with each participant being asked to make a note of any positive or negative experiences associated with participating in the tournament. This was also used to support group discussions and to identify shared experiences.

What They Found

This qualitative study split the results into four unique themes in which the players described their experiences of being involved in a bio-banded tournament. The four themes were:

1. Physical Development
Players suggested that this tournament encouraged a fairer playing field, with both early- and late-maturing players believing that bio-banding encouraged a style of play that was more tactically and technically orientated. This may serve as a great way to reduce injury and ensure participation in children.

2. Technical and Tactical Development
Players reported that freedom and opportunity were greater than “normal” football games, with players feeling more able to demonstrate their technical and tactical strengths. In addition, players outlined that they altered their style of play to accommodate younger players in their “band”.

3. Psychosocial Development
Based on chronological age, younger players felt a greater sense of confidence when playing with older players and was evident in their feelings of composure on the ball. However, older players felt that there was increased pressure on them to out-perform their younger banded players and adopt a higher level of “responsibility”.

4. Overall experience
All participants in the focus groups described the tournament as a positive addition to their regular training. Early-maturing players suggested that they enjoyed the superior challenge that bio-banding provided them with. The late-maturing players also enjoyed the banded tournaments, but for different reasons. The main reason for which was empowerment, specifically with regards to the effects of maturation on performance and how they may be at a disadvantage to their chronological peers because they are less mature. However, this bio-banded opportunity allowed them a chance to perform and get recognition from the coaches and staff.

Practical Takeaways

Coaches and sports scientists should consider the benefits of bio-banding, such as increased confidence, a fairer representation of skill and ability, and the potential for players to develop tactical and technical skills. This may be a great way for coaches to use in a ‘talent identification’ scheme, so that players can really showoff what they can do. However, the frequency of bio-banded sessions is a consideration for practitioners, who must consider how much they wish to use this, with few studies providing any solid recommendations.

Based on the limited evidence regarding its long-term impact and benefits to athletes, it is necessary for you, as the Performance Digest reader, to think about where this can fit into your schedule. Sean Cumming, the lead author of this study and the “Godfather” of bio-banding, suggests that this is an additional tool for the S&C coach to use and should form part of a multi-faceted programme.

Reviewer’s Comments

“Bio-banding is a relatively new intervention in the field of strength and conditioning, yet there are already some notable issues. Although bio-banding groups players based on “physical” characteristics, it does not account for psychological maturity, which, as we know, can have numerous effects on group cohesion, enjoyment, and thus, participation. Furthermore, two athletes at 95% of their adult height can be completely different in stature, muscle mass, and therefore, performance characteristics, which can alter the dynamics of a game of football.

In terms of physicality, whilst a player may be limited when compared to their peers, an U13 player at 95% of their adult height, and an U15 player at 95% of their adult height, would have had completely different access to the tactical aspects of the game; which would still create a hypothetical proficiency barrier. This leads many to debate the validity of bio-banding as a model; with some arguing that a natural “divide” in ability is required to develop a host of skills such as perseverance, physicality, social skills, and group dynamics.

Access to information can be a great thing, and although social networking, podcasts, and/or blogs are a great way of learning, I think that bio-banding has been misinterpreted in many resources that I’ve read. For example, in my conversations with a Premier League football club, they suggested that a bio-banded tournament be used up to four times a year, with the rest of training being with peers of the same chronological age. I think a lot of people assume that this is a method used year-round, which simply isn’t the case. However, I do agree that more research needs to be conducted to determine if bio-banding is a reliable and effective way at improving performance.”

Want to learn more?
Then check these out…

Watch this video
Read this article
Listen to this podcast

The full study can be read here.

The post Bio-banding in youth sport: What do the athletes think of it? appeared first on Science for Sport.