1. Introduction
2. What is a KBOX?
3. What does a KBOX do?
4. How does KBOX work?
5. Is KBOX worth it?
6. How do I set up KBOX?
7. Conclusion

Introduction

The kBox is a flywheel training device that is in its fifth generation of development since its inception in 2011-12. The platform-based flywheel device offers a range of exercises to be performed in the gym (e.g. squats, hinges, rows), and is portable to travel wherever necessary (e.g. pitch, home gym, or hotel). The action of the flywheel provides a training experience that is truly unlike any other, and the physical benefits of increasing strength and hypertrophy are well-researched (1). Ultimately, for individuals looking to maximise their time and results with training, the novel stimulus allowed with the kBox can be a difference maker for athletes aiming to gain an edge regarding performance enhancement and injury resilience.

What is a KBOX?

A kBox is a platform-based flywheel training device designed by Exxentric. The platform allows users to stand atop and push against in order to perform a variety of exercises (e.g. squat, hinge, calf raise, row, etc.). Users will actively push or pull (i.e. apply force) to a strap attached to a handle, bar, or belt that works against a rotating flywheel as resistance.  Essentially, the kBox is a platform-based flywheel training device designed by Exxentric that has gone through five versions of advancements in the last twelve years.

Exxentric is arguably the leader in the resurgence of flywheel training for fitness and athletic development over the last decade. Fredrik Correa and Marten Fredriksson founded their company in 2011 after identifying a need for a more practical and efficient training tool while working with youth ice hockey players (2). Over the last decade, the kBox has continued to evolve into the premiere option for a variety of exercises using flywheel technology. It has been researched as an alternative to free weight exercises and continues to surface as a worthwhile training means that matches or exceeds the gains experienced with traditional free weight training (3). Ultimately, the stimulus experienced with a flywheel provides a meaningful stimulus that may benefit the athlete, team, or individual you work with.

The use of flywheel devices in training dates back to the late 1700s (Gymnasticon, 2).  Flywheels were used in the early 1900s for exercise physiology research and gained the strongest support in the 1990s as a training means for astronauts aiming to limit muscle and bone loss during zero-gravity space travel (2). The training experience and opportunities to load various movement patterns (e.g. squat, leg extension, etc.) through the inertia and kinetic energy generated in a flywheel provided a practical option that exposes muscles to the necessary resistance (i.e. mechanical tension) to support maintaining strength and muscle mass (2). 

With the kBox, Exxentric took the approach of training astronauts in space to training athletes in the gym, on the court, or at the pitch. With a much more favourable environment, flywheel training provides substantial increases in strength and muscle mass (1).  Through Exxentric’s advancements over the years, the kBox has become a versatile, portable, and practical option for a range of athletes to at-home exercise enthusiasts.

What does a KBOX do?

The kBox creates resistance through the rotation of weighted wheels that generate inertia based on the momentum generated during the concentric (upward) action of a movement (1). What is special about the kBox and flywheel training is that the design and materials used allow for the resistance to match the effort of the user. For example, however hard the athlete works (pushes or pulls) through the concentric action, the axle will continue to rotate and recoil the strap with the same energy that was generated. Hence the term, ‘isoinertial,’ where the load is constant due to the inertia generated by the user and kinetic energy built in (1).

Based on the strategies used during the concentric and eccentric portion, there is opportunity to experience an eccentric overload either by a delayed reception of the inertia on the eccentric side (lengthening portion of the movement), or an accentuated concentric action through assistance or a stronger position.  For example, if an athlete is squatting on the kBox, and pushes with maximal effort throughout the full range of motion (especially in the top portion of the squat where it becomes more advantageous, and the user is able to generate more energy in the wheel). As the strap recoils, the athlete can move into a deeper squat position to brake and redirect the rotating flywheel.  Given the additional energy built as the athlete accelerates up, there is potential for eccentric overload to be experienced at the bottom. This ‘overload’ has been shown to help build muscle, strength, and resiliency (5).

How does KBOX work?

Resistance training typically works with external loads and gravity (e.g. barbells, dumbbells, etc.), whereas the kBox uses inertia generated in the flywheel to create resistance similar to a yoyo. The thing to recognize is that whatever energy is generated on the way up/out (as the strap uncoils) will be returned on the way down/in (as the strap recoils). Additionally, users can use larger wheels to reduce the speed of movement and increase the amount of inertia to overcome when performing various exercises.

Due to the rotating wheel, there is a cyclical action to repetitions that is unlike any other form of resistance training.  The greatest levels of tension or generated while the muscles are at their longest length, which is an aspect beneficial to increasing hypertrophy and durability for athletes aiming to do so (4).

Due to the rotating wheel, there is a cyclical action to repetitions that is unlike any other form of resistance training.  The greatest levels of tension or generated while the muscles are at their longest length, which is an aspect beneficial to increasing hypertrophy and durability for athletes aiming to do so (4).

Given the fact that the resistance is generated by the user, the ‘variable resistance’ provided aims to maximise each repetition from the start (given the effort level of the user is maximal), and tapers to match the effects of fatigue. This allows sets to be extended further than typical mass-based resistance that remains constant. Therefore, it allows athletes to accumulate more stimulatory repetitions in a set, volume in a session, and possibly better skill and performance development.

Regarding performance metrics, the kMeter (which measures flywheel rotations) provides live, rep by rep, feedback (2). Users are able to see concentric/eccentric power, range of motion, forces produced (concentric) or yielded (eccentric), eccentric overload achieved, and energy expended for each repetition (5). This insight is useful for making training decisions and tracking progress similar to velocity-based training, these metrics provide the user with a target to achieve and can help to dictate the number of reps in a set, and sets in a given session. 

Is KBOX worth it?

Given the practicality and novelty of a kBox, I would suggest considering incorporating it into your training regime. The advancements over the last decade have made it a durable and efficient system that is able to adapt to numerous exercises (e.g. squats, hinges, rows, etc.)

Likewise, for athletes with limited training space (e.g. garage gym, on field, or travelling), they can accomplish a good amount of primary complex movements with minimal equipment and adjustments.

Therefore, if the budget allows, I think a commitment and exposure to flywheel training can be a beneficial exposure to maximising the return on strength, hypertrophy, rehabilitation, and resiliency training.

Further, there are a range of kBox options available (e.g. kBox Active, kBox Lite, kBox Pro, etc.) that vary in price (2).  This allows users to find the model that best fits their needs at an affordable price.

How do I set up KBOX?

The kBox is easy to set up, has minimal moving parts, and has great support in navigating any technical issues from Exxentric (2). The advancements in materials and interaction of parts have greatly improved over the last ten years. With the most recent rollout of the fifth generation kBox, it is arguably better than ever. The set-up process is as simple as attaching the desired attachment (e.g. belt, harness, handle), adjusting the strap to the appropriate length, deciding appropriate load, and executing the movement to ensure that the box remains stable.  All in all, the kBox provides the user with a great experience that leaves them better physically but also mentally encouraged to be consistent day to day and week to week throughout training.

Conclusion

As with the investment of any training device, there is a filter of questions that a coach and athlete must go through to decide whether the return is worth the investment. Given the consistent training benefits shown in flywheel research, that is reason enough for me to consider implementing it into training for any athlete, regardless of sport or training age (6 & 7). Flywheel training with the kBox is adaptable to the individual’s ability. Not to mention, it is versatile and portable. The exercise prescription and progression is really only limited by the imagination of the individual. Lastly, the price for the quality and durability is justifiable as well. As the saying goes, ‘you get what you pay for’ and I think for the price, the cost definitely outweighs the benefits. The kBox provides unique opportunities that could be the difference maker in an individual’s ability to be stronger, faster, and more durable.

The post kBox | Flywheel training appeared first on Science for Sport.

• New Zealand blackcurrant extract and running performance
• Lifting in the weights room to get faster
• Physical demands of soccer on artificial turf

New Zealand blackcurrant extract and running performance

New Zealand blackcurrant extract is becoming a popular sports supplement. The blackcurrants in New Zealand are grown in a region with fantastic environmental factors and strong ultraviolet sunlight. It is suggested that New Zealand blackcurrants are highly nutritious and protect against environmental stressors. Interestingly, CurraNZ Blackcurrant Extract is the official New Zealand rugby team’s supplement.

An interesting study involving New Zealand blackcurrant extract was published in this month’s International Journal of Sports Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. The study investigated the effects of New Zealand blackcurrant extract on 5-km running performance. Sixteen trained male runners with an average VO₂ max of 55.4 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹ took part in the study.

Interestingly the study found that ingesting New Zealand blackcurrant extract improved 5-km running performance by an average of 38 seconds without altering physiological or metabolic responses to exercise. The amount of New Zealand blackcurrant extract ingested was 900 mg, two hours before running. While the results are promising, more evidence is needed to fully grasp the benefits of New Zealand blackcurrant extract on exercise performance.

Lifting in the weights room to get faster

If you are interested in using the weights room to get your athletes faster, this recent video from Matt Tometz is a must-watch! Tometz outlines that while sprinting and speed training is the most specific thing to do to get faster, lifting in the weights room can also help athletes get faster.

However, lifting programs must be beneficial to your athlete’s speed development. Tometz describes the dos and don’ts of lifting to get faster. This section of the video provides insight into what to program and what to avoid when increasing speed is the goal. Tometz then provides practical programming tips to get faster. These tips are expertly discussed in detail. Some of these tips include the following:

• Super-set exercises for a contrast effect
• Throw medicine balls high and fast
• Jump with light/moderate weight
• Do a variety of plyometrics
• Be intentional with rest times

Tometz is a writer for Science for Sport too and his blogs can be viewed here. Tometz has also been a regular guest on the Science for Sport podcast and his episodes listed below are well worth checking out!

• Get Million Dollar Speed Using The Latest Sport Technology
• Optimising Youth Speed Training: They’re Not Just Small Adults
• How To Use Gym-Based Training To Rocket Your Speed

Physical demands of soccer on artificial turf

Here in Ireland, artificial turf pitches have allowed many sports to be played during the winter months. Playing and training on artificial turf is more convenient and enjoyable than a waterlogged grass pitch! Interestingly, anecdotal evidence suggests some players find artificial turf more demanding than natural grass. Therefore, I was intrigued when a study comparing the physical demands of soccer on artificial turf and natural grass was published this month.

The study used 31 elite soccer players as their participants. Participants played matches on artificial turf and natural grass. Match running performance artificial turf and natural grass was collected and analysed by GPS. The results showed that playing on artificial turf was more physically demanding for defensive and midfield players than playing on natural grass.

The authors of the study suggest that soccer coaches should consider training and recovery strategies to prepare players for the more physically demanding artificial turf surfaces. The results of this study may support the anecdotal evidence from some players that artificial turf is more physically demanding. However, more research is still needed in this area.

From us this week:

>> New course: Periodization for Football
>> New podcast: How You Can Move Like An NBA Superstar With Next Level On-Court Coordination
>> New infographic: Hamstring Injuries: How Do They Happen?
>> New article: VO₂ MAX

Access to a growing library of sports science courses

SFS Academy is an all-access membership to premium sports science education.

With SFS Academy, you’ll learn from some of the best coaches around the world as they teach you how to apply the latest research and practice with your athletes.

Get instant access when you join today on a 7-day free trial.

I hope you enjoyed this week’s roundup of the hottest sports science news, and as always, we’ll be back next week with more to keep you at the forefront of the industry.

The post The LATEST popular sports supplement appeared first on Science for Sport.

Here are some of the biggest happenings:

• Creatine timing, does it matter?
• How fast is Erling Haaland?
• Cobra blood and bull testicle?

Creatine timing, does it matter?

Creatine is one of the most popular and extensively studied supplements. Its safety and effectiveness have been well established by research. Creatine is typically taken to enhance high-intensity exercise capacity and increase lean muscle mass.

However, the timing of creatine supplementation has been debated. A recent expert-reviewed article by Forbes Health discusses this matter. There are two viewpoints on creatine timing. The first is that creatine should be taken close to the time of training. Whereas the other viewpoint disregards any benefit associated with timing.

This article gives a comprehensive summary of the science of creatine timing and which viewpoint is preferred. If you supplement with creatine, this article is well worth checking out!

If you would like to know more about sports supplements, then check out our blog SUPPLEMENTS IN SPORT: WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS AND RISKS?

How fast is Erling Haaland?

Erling Haaland is arguably the best striker in football today. The Norwegian had an incredible record-breaking debut season for Man City in the Premier League. His record of 36 goals is the most ever recorded by a player. Haaland’s speed is a key component to his success. So just how fast is Erling Haaland?

Recently, a video of Haaland during his Borussia Dortmund days has resurfaced on social media. In this cool video, we can see Haaland showing devastating pace and reaching 35 km/h. Interestingly, his sprint distance is approximately 100 metres too!

If you are interested in learning more about this topic, check out our blog: SPEED TRAINING IN SOCCER: HOW TO DEVELOP THIS GAME-CHANGER

Cobra blood and bull testicle?

Fox Sport Australia recently did a feature on Australian boxer, Nikita Tszyu. Tszyu discusses his diet ahead of his showdown with fellow Australian boxer, Jack Brubaker. Fresh cobra blood and bull testicles are examples of food sources in his current diet.

Tszyu attributes his peculiar diet to giving “energy rushes” and a “clear mind”. While some exotic food delicacies may be high in nutritional value, there is currently very little scientific evidence to support Tszyu’s claims. In fact, there are risks of infection associated with the consumption of exotic food delicacies. Consuming raw snakes can even lead to death as the venom may be consumed.

While this bizarre diet may work for Tszyu, the jury is still out on this.

From us this week:

>> New course: The Demands of Women’s Football
>> New podcast: Improve Your Bench Press With Essential Lessons From Para-Powerlifting
>> New infographic: Age-related decline in performance on the pitch
>> New article: Basic Movement Patterns

Access to a growing library of sports science courses

SFS Academy is an all-access membership to premium sports science education.

With SFS Academy, you’ll learn from some of the best coaches around the world as they teach you how to apply the latest research and practice with your athletes.

Get instant access when you join today on a 7-day free trial.

I hope you enjoyed this week’s roundup of the hottest sports science news, and as always, we’ll be back next week with more to keep you at the forefront of the industry.

The post Creatine timing… appeared first on Science for Sport.

The world is filled with thousands of gadgets that claim to improve your speed and acceleration, but which ones actually deliver?

By Matt Solomon
Last updated: February 29th, 2024
3 min read

Speed training: How technology can help

The world is filled with thousands of gadgets that claim to improve your speed and acceleration, but which ones bring you million-dollar speed, and which just cost a million dollars?
In episode 82 of the Science for Sport podcast, Matt Tometz, Sport Science Coordinator at TCBoost Performance, divulges some industry secrets, letting you in on the cutting edge technology which is making a difference at the highest levels of sport.

First things first though – why is speed the most desired and famed physical trait? It may seem intuitive that speed changes games, wins tournaments, and defines careers, but it is also a gateway into pro sports.

“A high school baseball player who trains with us has been chatting with professional scouts, and they said that they’ll consider drafting him if he can drop his 40m sprint time. Not hit more homers, not get his arm stronger for throwing the baseball – ‘drop your 40’,” Tometz said.

So now we know speed is vital in many sports. And obviously tech can play a massive role in shaving milliseconds off your sprint time, but when it comes to technology, where do you start?
“You can get [something] as simple as Kinogram from Altis. This is a series of five pictures of someone’s sprinting technique, which just uses the slo-mo function on a phone. Although that’s not specifically measuring speed, you can just use your phone to [work out] ‘has our technique improved’?” Tometz said.

What else do you need for your speed training?

The next logical step is to get your hands on some timing gates. These are typically lasers that give you the exact time you break the beam at both the start and the end of your sprint. These are the ones that beep incessantly when they’re not working – that horrible, high-pitched noise you hear in your sleep three days after testing. Yeah, those.

“We need to be measuring speed. Now there are so many different lasers out there. We’re fortunate to have fusion smart speed lasers, so that’s a little bit higher end. There’s also stuff like Freelap, Brower, everything in between,” Tometz said.

Timing gates are the bread and butter of speed tech, but if you want to take things up a notch, there’s one piece of kit Tometz can’t live without.

“If I had unlimited money, I would use 1080 Sprint, because it spits out time, velocity, force, and power. The graph plots every step over time – it is how you run. So I can specifically say, ‘Oh, it was your fourth step that the curve kind of flattened out’,” Tometz said.

Obviously, 1080 Sprint sounds fantastic and futuristic, but what on earth is it?
“So it’s a linear transducer. Which basically measures how fast the string comes out of the machine. And that’s how it measures all of those metrics. But also one of the main selling points is that you can get super specific with the resistance, down to the 10th of a kilogram,” Tometz said.

A swift Google search will show you the 1080 Sprint will set you back north of $18,000 (USD). So if you need to have next-level precision in your sprint training, you’ll have to put your hand in your pocket.

More tips and tricks for speed training

Tometz goes on to discuss how he translates all of this great data into improved training and performance – if you want to hear more, just hit the link to the podcast below.

You can download the podcast on any of the big hosting services, including Apple Podcasts and Spotify, or just use this link: https://scienceforsport.fireside.fm/82
Don’t forget to hit the subscribe button and be sure to give us a review and rating too!

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Matt Solomon

Matt is a strength and conditioning coach at Team NL (Dutch Olympic Team). He was also the Lead Academy Sports Scientist/Strength and Conditioning coach at Al Shabab Al Arabi FC. For Science for Sport, Matt works as the group manager for the Coaches Club and is the host of the Science for Sport Podcast.

More content by Matt

The post Speed training: How tech can help you get faster, quickly appeared first on Science for Sport.

Speed is as critical to performance as technical and tactical mastery, as well as strength and conditioning. Here’s how to develop it to blow your opponents away on the pitch.

By Will Ambler
Last updated: February 29th, 2024
4 min read

• Speed training in football is as critical to performance as technical and tactical mastery, as well as strength and conditioning.

• There are many components of speed which athletes can develop – linear, multidirectional, deceleration, acceleration, change of direction and agility, and top speed.

• In order to achieve the right adaptations for speed improvements, coaches should supplement their drills with power-based strength and conditioning exercises.

Speed training in football: Why it’s crucial

Speed is one of the most vital dimensions of sports performance. Defined as the rate at which someone moves, speed is as critical to performance as technical and tactical mastery as well as strength and conditioning.

Without effective levels of speed, athletes can struggle to compete, so it is vital coaches and athletes focus on developing this aspect of sports performance.

“There are many components of speed which athletes can work on to improve their speed – linear, multidirectional, deceleration, acceleration, change of direction and agility, and top speed,” said leading strength and conditioning coach Andy Hyde during his Science for Sport presentation titled ‘Game Speed in Football’.

Components of speed

Linear
Linear speed efforts often happen while athletes are already in motion. In football, linear runs do not often exceed 20m and “45% of goal scoring scenarios are preceded by a linear sprint,” said Hyde.

Linear speed is measured by straight-line distance over a period of time.

“Elite football players average 17m per sprint, with forwards, wingers, and fullbacks performing more linear sprints compared to centre midfielders and centre-backs,” explained Hyde.

“To get started, wall drills are a great way to ensure athletes develop the right technique. Athletes should drive their knees forward with force and extend fully at the hip.”

Once the proper technique is adopted, shuttle runs can be included to work on linear acceleration to develop overall speed.

Multidirectional
True change of direction speed in invasion sports is rare – 77% of change of direction in football games are at an angle of less than 90°. Multidirectional speed is associated with curved angled sprints.

“Athletes who are faster in acceleration usually have greater entry velocities into change of directions, which can result in slower exit velocities. Therefore, it is important for coaches to develop athletes’ eccentric strength, eccentric rate of force, deceleration tasks, and efficient technique,” said Hyde.

To develop multidirectional speed, coaches can set up sprints that involve various changes of direction – cones and poles are helpful in forcing athletes to change direction.

Deceleration
Deceleration efforts are highly intense and should be managed and progressed carefully. According to research, high-intensity decelerations occur more often than high-intensity accelerations in field sports.

“Deceleration can be a very damaging skill and can lead to injuries if performed with incorrect technique. When in-season, be very careful when training deceleration skill development since athletes are exposed to lots of those movements during games,” explained Hyde.

YouTube is a great platform to create a needs analysis for your athletes and contains a wealth of content from elite athletes who demonstrate best practice (hips behind the feet to create breaking force), said the leading strength and conditioning coach.

Top speed
In games, athletes rarely reach their top speed – research shows athletes reach on average 92% of their top speed.

“Despite not reaching top speed, athletes engage in frequent but brief exposures towards 85-95% of maximum velocity. The goal here is to ‘bulletproof’ athletes’ hamstrings,” said Hyde.

“Coaches shouldn’t focus too much time on top speed mechanics drills, instead they should incorporate drills in the context of game-specific movements in which acceleration and decelerations are common.”

Four progressions to improve speed

Each progression should last for four weeks to enable athletes to adapt to the drills, new stimuli thrown at them, and overload safely.

“Exercises and skill progressions should be the focus, not sets and reps. In order to achieve the right adaptations for improved speed, coaches should supplement their drills with power-based strength and conditioning exercises,” said Hyde.

Progression 1

• Skill – Lateral shuffle
• Drill – Lateral mirror shuffle
• Power – Skater hop & land
• Strength A1 – Cossak Squat
• Strength A2 – Single-leg Romanian deadlift
• Core – Kneeling palloff hold

Progression 2

• Skill – Lateral shuffle
• Drill – Lateral mirror shuffle against opponent
• Power – Loaded skater hop & land
• Strength A1 – Lateral lunge
• Strength A2 – Single-leg Romanian deadlift
• Core – Standing palloff hold

Progression 3

• Skill – Lateral shuffle
• Drill – Lateral mirror shuffle with shot/block (sport-specific movement)
• Power – Reactive skater hop & land
• Strength A1 – Lateral lunge drop
• Strength A2 – Single-leg Romanian deadlift
• Core – Standing palloff hold & twist

Progression 4

• Skill – 65° cut
• Drill – Bib bulldog
• Power – Lateral hop & land
• Strength A1 – Lateral lunge push
• Strength A2 – Single-leg Romanian deadlift
• Core – Kettlebell pull-through

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Will Ambler

More content by Will

The post Speed training in football (soccer): How to develop this game-changer appeared first on Science for Sport.

1. Introduction
2. Speed development: How it can be a game-changer
3. Why correct running mechanics are vital
4. How to assess running mechanics: The 4 Ps

Introduction

Running mechanics are crucial for improving running economy, injury prevention and maximising athletic potential. Team sport athletes don’t need to aim to be 100m sprinters, but sprinting techniques can help any athlete generate more force. The 4 P’s – Posture, Positioning, Placement, Patterning – provide a framework to categorise drills, allowing coaches to emphasise particular components of running mechanics with athletes.

We spoke to Nathan Griffith who is currently the head of academy strength & conditioning at Oxford United FC and undertaking a PhD at the University of Birmingham, understanding and evaluating the relationship between acceleration and deceleration within academy football to find out more.

Speed development: How it can be a game-changer

Running with the right technique is vital for athletes and, with the correct mechanics, they can maximise their speed and ability to perform sport-specific actions. And perhaps more so than ever before, speed is essential as the pace of play in many team sports has increased exponentially in recent years, with athletes, coaches, and teams focusing more on speed development year-on-year, leading strength and conditioning coach Nathan Griffith says.

“Speed is such an important part of team sports and so ensuring your athletes have the right running mechanics is key to ensuring they can compete at the required level of competition. The correct technique leads to improved performance and athletic development,” Nathan Griffith said.

Why correct running mechanics are vital

According to Griffith, running with the correct mechanics has the following three benefits:

• Running economy

“The right mechanics improve an athlete’s economy, which is how efficiently they run. With a high running economy, athletes are able to maintain sub-maximal velocity for longer periods of time, enabling them to work harder for longer,” explained Griffith.

• Injury prevention

Griffith continues, “Coaching the correct technique reduces the risk of injury. At high speed, incorrect technique can expose athletes to a high risk of hamstring injuries, something to be avoided. It is essential to coach ground contact and [foot] strike on the floor.”

• Maximising athletic potential

“Using the correct mechanics ensures you are optimising your athletes’ ability to deliver maximum speed. Through maximum speed, you can improve true athletic potential by allowing your athletes to produce high quality speed movements,” mentioned Griffith.

How to assess running mechanics: The 4 Ps

Before an athlete can implement the right running mechanics, it is important to understand any technical deficiencies.

“We are not training our athletes to become 100m sprinters; however, we are taking qualities out of sprinting which improves technique, thus enabling an athlete to improve their capacity of developing force,” explained Griffith.

To assess running mechanics, the leading strength and conditioning coach suggested a 4 P’s framework – posture, positioning, placement, patterning.

“The 4 P’s enable coaches to categorise drills, allowing them to emphasise particular components of running mechanics within their athletes,” he said.

Posture relates to an athlete’s body alignment and ensuring force is directed towards the desired direction.

“Poor posture will limit their potential, and under- or over-reaching will increase the risk of injury. If aligned properly, athletes can generate maximum force,” said Griffith. “To assess alignment, take a ground-to-head approach to assess your athlete’s body alignment. You should identify if their striking leg is directly underneath their hip at the point of ground contact.”

Positioning explains the angles and mobility of the body’s joints during the mechanics of running.

“All athletes have elastic potential, and the correct running mechanics maximises this elasticity. The desired flexibility and mobility to produce sprinting force can be seen in exercises like repetitive pogo jumps,” he said.

Placement is wholly related to strike and ground contact. Are athletes striking the ground with the correct foot placement?

“For effective placement, understand the angle of the shin and the dorsiflexion at the ankle joint. You want to see a positive shin angle to get the maximum output. Plyometric exercises like bounding are a great way to assess the positions your athletes get into,” suggested Griffith.

“You should also consider if your athletes are excessively bending their knees at the point of ground contact as you want to maximise the stretch-shortening cycle.”

Patterning concerns the rhythm and tempo of an athlete’s movements.

“Actions should be worked in coordination with each other. For example, your arms need to work with your legs to form a pattern that is seamless. Where possible, encourage coordination to avoid awkward movements in isolation, since awkwardnesses may cause a decline in performance as the body transitions through specific movements,” said Griffith.

The post Speed development: Why correct technique is vital for athletes appeared first on Science for Sport.

Elite athletes have access to teams of coaches and sport scientists, who use sports technology to drive performance. But amateur athletes can also benefit from the latest tech, too.

By Matt Solomon
Last updated: February 29th, 2024
3 min read

Sports technology: It’s not just for the professionals

Have you ever wanted to test yourself like an English Premier League footballer? In episode 68 of the Science for Sport Podcast, Aman Singh Shergill tells you exactly how.

The majority of the podcast discusses how players at the elite level profit from world-class sport science support, and how these scientists need to communicate with expert precision to improve individual performances.

However, the real gold was saved for those who don’t have access to sport scientists, massive budgets, and fancy equipment. Towards the end of the podcast, Shergill takes us through exactly how any athlete at any level can apply the same scientific philosophy to maximise their results.

“The scientific process can remain the same,” Shergill said.

Use the tech to test what needs to be tested

The first thing you’ll need to do is work out what you want to improve and find a test for that quality. In the podcast, Shergill uses the example of an aerobic test so you can develop a monstrous engine that will help you run your opponents off their feet.

So when you have your specific physical quality and a good test for it, you’ll need to perform the test itself. In this example, a 2km time trial might be used. You’ll need to work out exactly how far 2km is, so unless you’re going to break into an athletics track (we don’t recommend this), you might want to find a quiet place and use the GPS on your phone to work out the exact distance. When you’ve done this, you’ll need to take your test and go balls-to-the-wall for those 2000m. Don’t forget to set your timer, or you’ll be fuming by the end of your run!

After lying on the floor for a while questioning your life choices, you can calculate your maximal aerobic speed (MAS). But what is MAS? Remember back to when you were a kid at school and asked “when will I ever need to use this in real life?”, well my friend, speed = distance/time, and this is real life. So divide your 2000m by your time in seconds and you’ll get your MAS.

This is your baseline measurement – all you need to do now is to plan a training intervention. Luckily there are tonnes of resources online for this. You could also ask your friendly local S&C coach or sport scientist, or devour some of the fantastic information provided at scienceforsport.com. In this example, you’ll probably want to find an aerobic interval training plan.

Now for the difficult part – you actually have to follow the plan for a number of weeks! Yes, do the work.

Now the hard work really begins…

After your training intervention, let’s say eight weeks, you can retest. This is the essence of all sport science, even at the highest levels. Yes, the secret is that simple. They just test, make a training intervention, and retest to see how it worked.

“It’s just about measuring, having a training plan, and retesting within a certain time frame,” Shergill said.

So now all you have to do is that exact same 2km run again, and record your time. If you improved, happy days! Give your coach a compliment and ask for the next program. If not, it’s back to the drawing board, and time to ask some reflective questions.

Using this example, you can see precisely how elite sport scientists use basic scientific principles to improve athletic performance at the highest levels, and how you can use the same principles to improve your performance too!

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Lessons from the English Premier League, and more

If you want to hear more about how Shergill applies this in the English Premier League, check out the podcast using the link below.

You can download the podcast on any of the big hosting services, including Apple Podcasts and Spotify, or just use this link: https://scienceforsport.fireside.fm/68
Don’t forget to hit the subscribe button and be sure to give us a review and rating too!

Matt Solomon

Matt is a strength and conditioning coach at Team NL (Dutch Olympic Team). He was also the Lead Academy Sports Scientist/Strength and Conditioning coach at Al Shabab Al Arabi FC. For Science for Sport, Matt works as the group manager for the Coaches Club and is the host of the Science for Sport Podcast.

More content by Matt

The post How everyday athletes can use sports technology to train like the pros appeared first on Science for Sport.

There are some huge differences between training for ice skating and other sports. But there are some crossover lessons for athletes who don’t take the ice.

By Matt Solomon
Last updated: March 1st, 2024
3 min read

On thin ice: what other athletes and coaches can learn from ice skaters

Christoph Wyss has coached strength and power for Chinese Speed Skaters and NHL hockey stars. In episode 74 of the Science for Sport Podcast, he reveals the secrets you can learn from the unique sporting movement of ice skating.

Wyss faces some unusual challenges, and these offer some valuable takeaways for field-based coaches and athletes.

First things first, it’s important to distinguish the difference between movement on ice and land-based sports like rugby, Aussie rules, and football (soccer to you pilgrims).

One key difference, apart from the fact it’s colder than a penguin’s undercarriage on the ice, is the muscle contraction type. Muscles can contract concentrically (muscle shortens), eccentrically (muscle lengthens), or isometrically (muscle stays the same length).

“The skating action itself tends to be more concentric and isometric, compared to eccentric during running,” Wyss said.

This has large implications for how you might want to train in the gym. Many field-based sports rely heavily on plyometric actions, which include large eccentric muscle actions, coupled with an elastic energy recoil. One example of this is stepping from a box, landing on the floor, and quickly jumping onto another box. However, as this type of action is not specific to the movements on ice, Wyss may have to turn his attention elsewhere.

So, how does training on the ice differ to running on ground?

Another difference is the plane of movement used in ice skating compared to running-based sports.

“In the skating action, you push sideways and away from your body, instead of going in a linear fashion,” Wyss said.

This leads Wyss to a conclusion which he thinks many other sports can learn from – train in the frontal plane (the frontal plane travels down the body separating it into front and back halves). Translating this from sport scientist lingo to lay terms, this means performing exercises in which you move sideways.

“The area where it gets different is that we do more work in the frontal plane; lateral sled drags, landmine skater squats,” Wyss said.

These gym-based exercises are more closely matched to movements on the ice than traditional heavy lifting (though Wyss prescribes that too). This starts to make the movement more specific. However, specificity is a complex topic, with Yuri Verkhoshansky’s ‘Dynamic correspondence’ a go-to when it comes to determining specificity. If the book seems daunting, check out Christian Bosse’s fantastic 5-minute simplification.

How is technology used in ice-based sports?

Before we get too immersed in speed and power exercises, it is important to look at how technology is used in ice-based sports.

When running, every metre spent accelerating and/or decelerating costs energy. However, this is uniquely different in ice skating, where athletes can literally coast around without having to work to maintain their speed. This poses a problem when it comes to measuring GPS outputs.

“In skating, when you stop, you’re still moving. But when you’re running, when you stop, you stop. We use GPS with the team [but] you can’t just use distance travelled,” Wyss said.

This means Wyss and a crack team of sport scientists needed to put their heads together to find relevant KPIs which would help them measure physical performance on the ice. Another great lesson for coaches in other sports: don’t just rely on the KPIs you are given.

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Wyss goes on to give more detail on the use of GPS, the exercises he uses in the gym, and some great insights into how he programs rotational movement.

If you want to hear the full episode, hit the link below!
You can download the podcast on any of the big hosting services, including Apple Podcasts and Spotify, or just use this link: https://scienceforsport.fireside.fm/74
Don’t forget to hit the subscribe button and be sure to give us a review and rating too!

Matt Solomon

Matt is a strength and conditioning coach at Team NL (Dutch Olympic Team). He was also the Lead Academy Sports Scientist/Strength and Conditioning coach at Al Shabab Al Arabi FC. For Science for Sport, Matt works as the group manager for the Coaches Club and is the host of the Science for Sport Podcast.

More content by Matt

The post Speed and strength training: Secrets from elite-level ice skating appeared first on Science for Sport.

By Tom Green
Last updated: April 28th, 2024
4 min read

Contents

1. Background & Objective
2. What They Did
3. What They Found
4. Practical Takeaways
5. Reviewer’s Comments
6. Want to learn more?

Original study

Madruga-Parera, M., Bishop, C., Fort-Vanmeerhaeghe, A., Beltran-Valls, M. R., Skok, O. G., Romero-Rodríguez, D. (2020). Interlimb Asymmetries in Youth Tennis Players: Relationships With Performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 34(10); p 2815-2823 doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000003152

Click here for abstract

Background & Objective

Tennis, by nature, is a multidirectional sport that requires individuals to perform numerous unilateral movements. For example, 70 % of movements that occur on a tennis court occur from a lateral position. Therefore, a difference in function or performance between limbs (i.e. interlimb asymmetries) can have significant effects on an individual’s ability to perform optimally.

The objective of this study was to investigate the asymmetries present in young tennis players during a fitness testing battery.

What They Did

Twenty-two elite youth tennis players (16.3 yr) were tested  over two days that were separated by a 72 h rest period, with each players’ training load decreased by 50% during the testing period to support testing performance. Day 1 consisted of three unilateral jump tests (countermovement jump (CMJ), broad jump, and lateral jump) and a 180-degree turn change of direction (CoD) test. On the second day, players performed a CoD task (shuffle and crossover step) that was resisted by an isointertial device (Byomedic System SCP).

All subjects performed three practice trials for all tests and a specific warm-up prior to testing, which consisted of 5-min of light jogging, dynamic stretches, and lower-body strength exercises (lunges, inchworms, and bodyweight squats).

What They Found

• The greatest levels of asymmetry were found on the single-leg CMJ (15.8%) and the smallest on the CoD tests (1.83%). With these scores considered, negative correlations were found between CoD asymmetries and the single-leg CMJ on the dominant and non-dominant side. This suggests that when used together, CoD and jump tests do not accurately describe the asymmetry profile of an individual.
• Differences between limbs for all tests was reported, with the dominant limb (eighteen athletes had right side dominance) being the stronger side in all tests.
• The CoD tests revealed a lower degree of asymmetry compared to the jump tests. This suggests that CoD tests may not be as sensitive as jump tests at revealing imbalances. Factors, such as linear speed, have previously been found to mask poor unilateral performance in CoD tasks (see HERE). Secondly, no relationship was found between the results of the 180-degree CoD test and CoD isointertial test.

Practical Takeaways

• The aim of any good long-term athletic development programme is to eliminate an over-reliance on a single strategy (e.g. taking off from only the right foot from a 90-degree cut when cutting from the left leg could be more advantageous to return a shot). Practically, ensuring that coaches tally up repetitions from the right- and left-hand side of the body allows coaches to document how many CoD movements are performed on both limbs during a session. This ensures that we are doing our bit to prevent overuse injuries during closed tasks.
• According to Bishop and colleagues (see HERE), a defining factor in effective CoD performance is the range of motion at the ankle. They suggest that a greater range of motion provides enhanced stability and balance ability, which allows athletes to “bank in and out” of a movement faster. In the attached video, a host of exercises such as single-leg RDL’s, squats, box step-ups, and skater hops with reaches can be seen. These movements create a fantastic foundation for young athletes, but further, will support athletes in developing ankle range of motion in a dynamic manner. Using 2 sets x 10 reps of these exercises in a warm-up will make a huge difference over acute periods (4-6 weeks) and should help tennis performance.
• Inter-limb asymmetries will, for the most part, exist due to the natural preference of an athlete to move a certain way. High imbalances between limbs can be a strong predictor of injury but is not necessarily a reason to act immediately. For example, in the podcast below, Chris Bishop discusses that when measuring asymmetries, coaches must ensure that this is done often (every 2-4 weeks) so that the imbalance is not purely a data anomaly. Consistency, bilateral (e.g. front/back squat), and unilateral (e.g. pistol squats, reverse lunges) training are the recommendations for reducing imbalances.

Reviewer’s Comments

“This study provides practitioners with a guide to test lower-limb asymmetries. Monitoring of inter-limb asymmetry is important, as athletes who show higher levels of asymmetry (>15%) between-limb difference are at a greater risk of lower- limb injury. Furthermore, although limb dominance is relatively normal, reductions in jump height and CoD performance have also been previously reported (see HERE) when a large imbalance is present. This will be detrimental to tennis performance, so ensuring that these are monitored is important.

A limitation of this study though, is that the participants’ stage of maturation was not considered. In the attached article, Madruga-Parera and colleagues reported that higher levels of asymmetry were present circa-peak height velocity than those who were pre-/post-peak height velocity. The authors attribute this to a temporary loss in motor control, commonly known as “adolescent awkwardness”, which occurs during PHV and results in compromised physical outputs. Future studies must consider this in a youth cohort to ensure data validity. Finally, both CoD tests were poor at revealing asymmetries. Jump testing may be a more time-effective and reliable test to measure inter-limb asymmetries.”

Want to learn more?

Then check these out…

Watch this video
Read this article
Listen to this podcast

Tom Green

Tom Green is currently the Head of Athletic Development at St Peters RC High School in England. Tom has extensive experience in a range of sports at varied levels. He holds a BSc and MSc in Strength and Conditioning, is a qualified teacher, and sits on the UKSCA board for S&C in Schools.

More content by Tom

The post Chasing Symmetry: Inter-limb Imbalances & Performance in Youth Tennis appeared first on Science for Sport.

How can we ensure our programming is context-driven?

By Andrew Hyde
Last updated: February 29th, 2024
8 min read

Introduction

Improving the competitive performance of athletes in field-based invasion sports such as football (soccer) calls for a needs analysis of the technical/tactical (21), physiological (19) and biomechanical (18) requirements of the sport. Although soccer is an intermittent sport that uses both the anaerobic and aerobic energy systems (3), this Blog Post will focus on the biomechanical and perceptual aspects of field skills in soccer. By field skill, we refer to athletic skills such as deceleration, agility and speed.

Therefore, the aims of this Blog Post are threefold 1) discuss how we can identify and program field skills 2) clearly identify and understand the field skills and 3) describe what they look like in soccer in addition to as a general technical model.

Needs Analysis

To understand what field skills occur in soccer and how these occur, we as coaches need to develop a needs analysis which is specific to the sport (e.g. soccer) and the particular playing positions on the field (e.g. midfielder or winger).

To do this, of course, we should draw on peer-reviewed literature to provide us with evidence-based time-motion data on the demand of the sport. However, to provide more context of how things actually happen, a notational analysis of a game or video clips of gameplay on YouTube can help us figure out exactly how athletic tasks are executed and the stimulus that causes these tasks to be carried out (14).

Reverse Engineering

Once this information is collected and at our disposal, we must begin with the end in mind. S&C coaches have all been guilty of losing sight of the end outcome during the decision-making processes of exercise selection for example.

If sessions support the improvement of a field skill with specificity to how it is used in game situations, it is time well spent. This is not to say general physical preparation shouldn’t be carried out, or general speed mechanics shouldn’t be taught, but that context must be applied eventually with the aim of achieving true transfer.

Once general models of field skills such as acceleration are taught, we must continue to build field skills by ensuring that the drills prescribed are integrated by athletes in sports-specific scenarios (14) and that the gym-based exercises we prescribe support the development of these field skills. It’s also important to note that the quality and context of coaching must align with these concepts too (14).

Understanding Field Skills

Field skills in soccer can be categorised into three main groups:

1. Deceleration
2. Agility & pre-planned change of direction speed
3. Acceleration & top speed

It’s important to note that despite being grouped, agility & pre-planned change of direction are completely independent skills (24), as are acceleration & speed (22).

As proposed by Jefferys (12, 13), skills can be broken down into:

1. Initiation movements – Used to start movement or change motion (e.g. Side-step motion to move laterally whilst watching play).
2. Transition movements – Used to set up a position where subsequent movement can be efficiently executed (e.g. crossover step to assume a position facing forwards).
3. Actualization movements – The final movement that determines success in an athletic task (e.g. following a transition with a sprint to beat an opponent).

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Deceleration

Deceleration is defined as a rapid stop or decrease in the body’s velocity, followed by re-acceleration in a different direction (10). This means that deceleration is a transition movement (14).

Kinematically it can be described by a centre of mass (CoM) posterior to the feet with a full foot heel strike, small steps and a wide base with knee flexion. Kinetically it can be described by high braking forces, long ground contact times, high step frequencies and eccentric muscle actions of the quadriceps and gastrocnemius (5, 1). Gradual progression in deceleration is key as decelerations high a load that is 37 % higher than accelerations per square metre (8).

Being a transition movement which precedes change of direction (CoD) and having a higher occurrence in small-sided games (SSG) (21), sessions entirely dedicated to deceleration are likely unwarranted, especially when decelerations occur 2.9x more frequently than accelerations (8).

Agility & Pre-planned Change of Direction Speed

Sprints that include a CoD precede 6 % of all goal-scoring situations in soccer (6). Even though this may appear low, players cover an average of 217 + 165 m through multidirectional sprints (4), accounting for 3.5 % of their total distance. From a time-motion perspective, players change direction every 3.8 – 4.5 seconds (3).

However, true Change of Direction Speed (CoDS) in invasion sports is rare (12), defined as a pre-planned task where “change of direction” occurs (20). Albeit, closed CoDS drills can be used as general tissue preparation to develop eccentric strength, dynamic balance and concentric rate of force development as a physical foundation to agility without a cognitive component.

This isn’t to say that developing CoDs is useless. Pre-planned side steps result in greater lateral foot placement, greater lateral movement speed, greater forward foot displacement, increased hip abduction, lower knee joint angles and reduced forces through the knee than unplanned side stepping (11). This can help us develop the physical aspects of agility.

On the other hand, agility is defined as a “rapid whole-body movement with a change of velocity or direction in response to a stimulus”. With a change of velocity being agility, deceleration alone could be performed as an offensive agility transition (24).

For example, a winger could be performing a linear sprint with the ball down the line, towards the touchline. As they approach the touchline at a high speed, they stop the ball before it goes out, decelerate past the ball and turn back towards it to cross or pass. The aim of the deceleration was to go from ‘fast to slow’ more suddenly than a defender, to create time and space to execute a pass or cross.

Acceleration & Speed

Linear acceleration and maximum velocity sprinting are soccer-specific actions which can impact the outcome of games (16). Elite soccer players average 17 m per sprint, with ~50 % being shorter than 10 m (8) and only 4 % reaching 30 m (3).

45 % of goal-scoring scenarios are preceded by a linear sprint (6). Although forwards, wingers and full-backs perform more sprints compared to centre-backs and central midfielders, there doesn’t appear to be differences in sprint distances (7). Forwards show superior sprint speed to other positions, with defenders and midfielders showing similar sprint capabilities, followed by goalkeepers (9).

Sprinting bouts are often preceded by players already being in motion (16) and successful acceleration in team sports has been characterised by faster ground contact times and increased stride frequency (17).

Acceleration in soccer can start as an initiation movement in a variety of ways such as shuffling back, moving side on or in stationary facing backwards. This means that acceleration training must go beyond wall drills. Especially when notational analysis shows that defenders may spend much of their time sprinting with their torso and head facing play whilst their legs are forwards, sprinting back towards goal.

It’s also not uncommon for soccer players to sprint in curved lines. Attackers (centre forwards) perform larger angled curved sprints (10-15°+), to run around and in behind defenders who perform smaller angled sprints (7).

Conclusion

The main aims of this Blog Post were threefold 1) discuss how we can identify and program field skills 2) clearly identify and understand the field skills and 3) describe what they look like in soccer, rather than as a general technical model.

To conclude, S&C coaches should ensure they truly understand not only the demands of sports such as soccer and the individual positions, but how movements occur. S&C coaches must reverse engineer their programming process and work backwards from the end outcome to ensure their programming and coaching are context-driven to improve field skills and drive high on-field performance.

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Andrew Hyde

Andrew has a degree in Sport & Exercise Science and a Master’s in Strength and Conditioning from Leeds Beckett University. He is the Director of Aesthetic Athletes where he works with elite soccer players and the general population. Andrew has also worked as a Strength & Conditioning Coach in the NHS, rehabilitating ACL ruptures, and is the Content Manager at Science for Sport, having previously worked as an Intern Strength and Conditioning Coach with Leeds United F.C. Ladies Academy.

More content by Andrew

References

The post Developing Field Skills in Football (Soccer) Players appeared first on Science for Sport.

Recommendations backed by science

By Nathan Kiely
Last updated: February 29th, 2024
17 min read

Contents of Blog Post

1. Introduction
2. Biomechanics of Sprinting
3. Factors Affecting Sprint Performance
4. Sprint Training in Practice
5. Acceleration
6. Maximum Velocity
7. Example Program
8. Conclusion
9. References
10. About the Author
11. Comments

Introduction

Linear sprint speed is commonly perceived to be one of the key determinants of performance in many sporting endeavours. Faster athletes score more often (15), have a bigger impact in match-determining situations (12) and sign bigger professional contracts (33) than their slower peers. As such, it’s unsurprising that speed is such a desirable physical quality.

Speed refers to the displacement of an object or person over a given elapsed time. In sport, we often refer to speed in the context of maximal velocity sprinting. Another important component of sports speed is acceleration, defined as the rate of change in speed. Both aspects of sprinting speed form the foundational concept of speed for sports. These are very different measures and should not be discussed in the same context without a thorough explanation.

Making athletes faster can be a daunting project for strength & conditioning coaches or physical therapists looking for scientifically proven speed development methods to integrate into a thorough athletic development program or return to performance protocols.

Therefore, the aim of this article is to cut through the confusion and provide evidence-based recommendations to help you make your athletes lightning-fast.

Biomechanics of Sprinting

Sprint speed is a by-product of the relationship between stride length and stride frequency. Stride length is the distance covered during each cycle of running gait. Stride frequency refers to the cadence of the gait cycle. Positive or negative changes to stride length or stride frequency will affect sprinting performance.

Running gait consists of two key phases: stance and swing. The stance phase has three stages 1) touch down – in this stage, ground contact is initiated 2) mid-stance – this stage occurs when the centre of mass is directly above the base of support 3) toe-off stage. For male athletes, research suggests stride frequency (the number of strides taken per second) is a rather stable measure across individuals and performers, whereas better sprinters generally display longer stride length, covering more distance with each step taken in comparison to lower-level sprinters (29).

Interestingly, the opposite has been found for female athletes, with improved performance correlating with increased stride frequency (29). This perhaps indicates athletes with lower force-generating capacities may benefit from an increased rate of turnover. This has large implications for how we coach and train athletes with the aim of improving sprint speed, particularly across sexes. As a general rule, increasing athletes’ speeds requires greater force application to cover more distance with each stride and generally should not encourage them to take more steps over a given distance (34).

To do this, they must generate larger ground reaction forces (GRFs) during the stance phase and particularly the propulsion stage of each stride. Given elite sprinters typically display ground contact times of < 0.1 seconds, this places high demands on the elastic qualities of the force-producing muscles in the lower limbs. Generating a large impulse during the stance phase will demand greater degrees of stiffness and strength. In contrast, for female athletes, exercises that emphasize increased turnover are likely beneficial for improving performance. Therefore, developing improved swing phase mechanics for improved heel recovery efficiency and strength in the hip flexor muscles may prove beneficial for females.

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Factors Affecting Sprint Performance

Sprint physiology is complex, with differing physical qualities more heavily associated with either acceleration or maximum velocity. Having said this, there is strong evidence, especially in field sports, that fast is fast, regardless of the sprint phase. Clark et al. (2019) demonstrated that athletes with greater acceleration qualities tended to also display higher maximum sprint velocities and vice-versa, perhaps dispelling the myth that an athlete is either good at accelerating or at top speed and that these qualities are independent (5).

Furthermore, Gabbett (2012) highlights the importance of all aspects of sprint performance in team and field sport athletes by identifying how more than 20 % of all sprints in professional rugby league matches are over 20 meters in length (14). This suggests that not only is acceleration critical to sports performance, but top speed may also play a crucial role, particularly when the nature of these longer sprints is considered (match-deciding plays, line-breaks, long chases, etc.). Given this knowledge, an appropriate speed program for team sports should aim to develop sprint ability at various phases—both short accelerations and maximum velocity, upright sprints.

One of the key factors associated with high-level sprinting, particularly during acceleration, is the efficiency of force application during the stance phase (24). Horizontal GRF relative to body weight is likely a key to improved speed during the initial strides of a sprint. One method proposed for improving horizontal force production is through horizontally orientated strength training. Exercises such as the barbell hip thrust have been hypothesized to generate greater transfer for sprinting (6) due to the force-vector theory which classifies sports skills on the basis of the direction of force expression relative to the global coordinate frame (13).

However, some coaches and more recent research suggest this may not be the case, particularly in acceleration, whereby the untrained eye may ignore the trunk/shank angles displayed by athletes resulting in vertical force production intra-individually, while global force production is horizontal in nature (18). This is not to say an exercise like the hip thrust cannot contribute to improved sprint performance, merely that transfer of training is a complicated topic and is multi-factorial in nature.

Another heavily researched training method for increasing horizontal force application during sprinting is resisted sprints. Resisted sprints come in several forms; resistance band sprints, sled sprints, prowler pushes and although not resisted, incline sprints All these methods work through the same principle of overloading the horizontal component of force application by artificially slowing the athlete down. These methods allow athletes to maintain acceleration posture for far longer than traditional free sprints and can result in far more training density being directed towards peak power production along with reinforcing horizontal GRF orientation (34).

To improve acceleration performance using resisted sprints most effectively, an athlete’s horizontal velocity should be reduced to ~50% of top speed (7, 8). The loads when applied to a sled to create such a decrement in velocity appear to be far greater than what was traditionally believed to be acceptable by coaches who were concerned about alterations to sprint mechanics when using heavy resistance. However, recent literature has demonstrated these concerns are likely misplaced and that a range of light, moderate and heavy sled pushes may be useful at various stages of a properly periodized speed development program (25).

Weyand et al. (2000) and Nagahara et al. (2018) demonstrated that larger GRFs produced during each step were particularly important to sprinting speed during the maximal velocity phase (33, 26). Athletes wanting to run at higher maximum velocities are therefore required to express more force, in a shorter period. Furthermore, lower body strength has also been shown to correlate with sprint performance. McBride et al. (2009) (r = -0.61, p = 0.01), Trajano, et al. (2014) (r = -0.57, p = 0.04) and Baker et al. (1999) (r = -0.66, p<0.05) have all demonstrated strong correlations between 1-RM back squat strength and sprint performance in elite athletes (21, 32, 2).

This should come as little surprise given the gluteal muscles, quadriceps, hamstrings and calves are the prime movers of the force-producing actions shown in sprinting. The strong relationship between lower-body strength and sprint speed may be attributed to the fact that those athletes demonstrating greater force-producing capabilities are able to produce higher peak GRFs, impulse, and increased rate of force development (30).

Perhaps more important than strength, muscle-tendon unit (MTU) stiffness has been shown to correlate strongly with sprint performance in athletes (9). MTU stiffness describes the efficiency with which energy can be transferred from the force-producing muscles into force-receiving surfaces (i.e. the ground). For example, a stiffer ankle complex will reduce energy leakages between the calves and the foot when striking the ground. MTU stiffness can be assessed through tests such as the incremental drop jump test, where jump height or flight time and ground contact times are used to generate a reactive strength index (RSI).

The reactive strength index helps athletes and coaches better understand the quality of forces and speed of application when assessing vertically orientated interactions with the ground. RSI could be considered a key performance indicator for sprint performance due to its high correlation with sprint speed in both acceleration and at maximum velocity (9) and thus can serve as a useful assessment tool for coaches and athletes.

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Sprint Training in Practice

The greatest improvements in sprint performance following training interventions have been shown to come from combined/mixed method training programs that include sprints, plyometric exercises and weights training with both heavy loads (maximal strength training) and moderate loads at high movement velocities (ballistic training) (10). For the best transfer of training, plyometric exercises should be prescribed with the direction of force application in mind. To best develop horizontal power for sprinting, skips, horizontal jumps and bounds have been proposed as the most effective training tools (10), ultimately, and perhaps most importantly, the most potent sprint training stimulus available is sprinting itself (19).

Sprint training and sprinting, in general, come with some inherent risks. Hamstring strain injury (HSI) is the most common injury found during sprinting actions (28), accounting for up to a quarter of all soft-tissue injuries in sports (27). Thus, mitigating this risk of HSI with appropriate programming and complementary training methods is an essential component of a well-developed speed training program. Rather than avoid sprinting through fear of exposure to injury (11), researchers suggest for positive effects from an injury prevention perspective, team and field sport athletes should perform sprint training on a weekly basis (20).

Oakley et al. (2018) go further and suggest team and field-sport athletes should be exposed to 6-10 bouts of sprinting per week with a total volume of 90-120 metres completed at greater than 95 % of maximal sprint speed (27). Furthermore, Carey et al. (2017) suggest athletes should be required to ‘earn the right’ to sprint by appropriately building sprint volumes in alignment with an ACWR (acute: chronic workload ratio) that remains below 1.4:1 (4). This ensures athletes build the necessary fitness required to tolerate increasing training demands appropriately and reduces the likelihood of injury. However, recently scholars have questioned the legitimacy of the ACWR model’s validity due to statistical artefacts and a lack of conceptual integrity, raising further doubts about the ideal progression of training volumes (17).

A commonly cited risk factor for HSI during sprinting is hamstring muscle fascicle length (3). Recent research indicates that the most effective stimulus for improving hamstring fascicle adaptations is sprint training itself (23) once more supporting the importance of actually exposing athletes to sprinting itself. In addition, to complement a sprint training program, hamstring fascicle length can be improved through heavy, supramaximal eccentric training with many research papers citing the Nordic hamstring curl exercise as a useful tool in achieving this goal (1).

Acceleration

During the acceleration phase of a sprint, the athlete’s trunk and shin should assume a positive lean in relation to the ground. Many coaches suggest the legs should work in more of a ‘piston-like’ action during the early strides of a sprint. This is posited to lead to greater horizontal force production with GRFs orientated more negatively, leading to improved propulsion. In order to optimize this technique, the athlete should rise gradually with each stride, rather than abruptly standing tall as soon as possible.

A common error seen during the acceleration phase of a sprint is cueing or intention to maximize stride frequency—being displayed through many short, choppy steps leading to reduced force application and dampening of the centre of mass displacement. That is, the athlete is failing to protect themselves far enough with each stride to create a positive effect on performance. This appears to come from the false assumption, as mentioned earlier, that stride frequency is the common limiting factor in sprint performance. Therefore, a useful cue for many athletes is to instruct them to take ‘big, long powerful strides’ as they initiate the sprint.

During the acceleration phase, the arms should work through an increased range of motion with visual observation of elite performers demonstrating the use of an accentuated ‘arm-split’ in the first few strides. Additionally, as shown in Figure 1, it’s not uncommon to see high-level sprinters harnessing hip internal rotation torques during block starts and therefore this should not be coached out of athletes through the misguided idea that arm and leg action should remain exclusively linear in nature.

Maximum Velocity

Posture
Most coaches agree that during the maximum velocity phase of a sprint, the athlete should assume a tall, upright posture with at most a small or gradual positive lean in the direction being travelled. Additionally, Hansen (2014) suggests that for optimal sprinting technique, the athlete should emphasize hip displacement from the ground, or increase ‘hip height’. (16) In effect, this enables athletes to better access the full extent of their hip extension capacity during the stance phase and translates to improved force application during the sprinting action.

Alignment
Based on visual observation of elite performers, it’s suggested that the limbs should avoid traversing the midline of the body to create excessive rotational force. Furthermore, athletes should also retain a rhythmical arm and leg action and avoid a mechanical or robotic technique that works exclusively in the sagittal plane. The arms and legs ought to trace a curvilinear path with the hands closer to the mid-line at the front and wider at the back during all phases of the sprint and the legs mostly linear through the sagittal plane during upright maximum velocity sprinting.

Range of motion
Hansen (2014) suggests during sprinting, athletes should emphasise ‘front-side dominant’ mechanics, particularly in the lower body (16). This means that the cyclical leg action works predominantly in front of the athlete’s centre of mass (COM). This can be developed through a high knee drive action and rapid heel recovery whereby the trailing leg avoids kicking up high and too far behind the COM. These positions can be seen in Figure 2 at toe-off (knee drive), maximal vertical projection and strike (heel recovery).

Furthermore, the arm action during upright sprinting should be relaxed yet powerful. The elbows will typically be observed in an acutely flexed position at the front side, with the hand close to the mouth or cheek, and then in an obtuse position at the backside with the hand clearing the hip behind the body. A common misnomer is that the elbows should remain in a rigidly fixed right angle during sprinting.

Foot strike
A critical aspect of sprinting technique appears to be the minimization of horizontal braking forces (26). These forces are typically generated during an ‘over-striding’ or ‘heel-striking’ pattern and cause the athlete to decelerate before propulsive forces can be applied during the stance phase, thus creating a net reduction in horizontal velocity. Therefore, foot strike should be initiated as close to directly under the athlete’s COM as possible – without compromising other elements of technical efficiency.

Athletes should be instructed to aim to initiate their ground contact through the ball of the foot, with a dorsiflexed ankle beneath their hips to improve horizontal force orientation and to better prepare the ankle complex to harness its stretch-shortening cycle qualities. A constraints-based drill that may help an athlete with this are mini-hurdle wicket sprints, as seen in the video clip above. When the hurdles are spaced appropriately, stride length can be guided, and foot strike can be orientated more efficiently as the athlete self-organizes their limbs during the exercise. A suggested starting point for mini hurdle spacing is for each hurdle to be spaced at the athletes standing height apart.

Once the athlete completes a few repetitions of the drill, the coach can reassess the spacings through trial and error to modify spacings on an individual basis. As mentioned in the range of motion section above, in order to optimize knee drive, a stiff and powerful foot strike during ground contact is essential. Athletes should be reminded to apply large and abrupt GRFs with each step with cues ranging from ‘hammer the ground’ to audible feedback such as ‘make the ground pop’.

Example Program

Example speed program for field or team sport athletes during an in-season phase, playing one game per week on Saturday.

Tuesday: Acceleration
Warm-up: Walking lunge, hamstring ground sweeps, lateral lunges and side-to-side sumo squats
Technical drills: A-march, A-skip, B-skip, A-run, straight leg bounding
Constraints-based exercise: Hill or sled sprints
Sprinting: 8 x 30 m sprints starting chest to ground with 90 seconds rest between reps
Thursday: Maximum velocity
Warm-up: Walking lunge, hamstring ground sweeps, lateral lunges, side-to-side sumo squats
Technical drills: A-march, A-skip, B-skip, A-run, straight leg bounding
Constraints-based exercise: Mini hurdle wicket sprints
Sprinting: 4 x 60 m walk-in start sprints with 3 mins rest between reps

Conclusion

Making athletes lightning-fast can seem daunting at first. However, as this article has outlined, there are simple components of training, that if programmed with appropriate intensity and volume, and completed consistently, serve as the underlying ingredients in a speed training program that can make athletes lightning fast. Understanding the basic biomechanical principles of speed along with visual examples of how these can be developed in practice is a great place for young coaches and therapists to get started. The pillars of any good speed development program are sound technique, a well-rounded training program consisting of appropriate strength, power and plyometric exercises and emphasis on the act of sprinting itself. With this article, it is my hope you now have fewer doubts about the key aspects of sprint training and can begin to make meaningful differences to your athlete’s health and performance on the field.

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Nathan Kiely

Nathan Kiely is an ASCA recognized strength and conditioning coach, ESSA-accredited sports scientist and holds a BSc (Hons) in Sport & Exercise Science from the University of Technology Sydney. Coach Nathan has a passion for developing speed, power, strength and endurance in the wide array of athletes he’s worked with since 2016 when his coaching career started.

More content by Nathan

References

The post How to Make Your Athletes Lightning Fast appeared first on Science for Sport.

Contents

1. Background & Objective
2. What They Did
3. What They Found
4. Practical Takeaways
5. Reviewer’s Comments
6. About the Reviewer
7. Comments

Background & Objective

Backward running (BR) has been used to prepare athletes for competition demands and as a return-to-play protocol for injured athletes. BR is different to other forms of backward locomotion such as back pedalling as BR more closely emulates forward running (FR). Recent reviews of BR have shown enhancements in a range of athletic performance measures and, as such, this study aimed to examine the acute responses to BR and provide practical recommendations for integrating BR into a training program.

What They Did

A review was performed of the current BR literature and covered several themes:

• The acute responses to BR
• BR as an injury-resistance tool
• Enhancing muscular functions using BR
• BR as a metabolic stimulus
• Practical recommendations for applying BR into a training program.

This article highlights the role of BR in a sporting context, providing insight into why BR may be beneficial for athletes.

What They Found

Acute Responses

• Compared to FR, BR is categorised by a:
• Greater energy expenditure
• Lower running speed
• Reliance on isometric and concentric muscle actions

Injury Resistance

• Warm-up programs including BR were beneficial for reducing the amount of overuse and severe injuries in athletes between 13-20 yr.

Muscular Functions

• Muscle and tendon length remains relatively constant upon ground contact, making BR primarily a concentric contractile movement.
• Adolescents, at around the time of their growth spurt, respond very well to BR,

Metabolic Stimulus

• Expend approximately 28% more energy than FR
• This leads to an improved running economy and oxygen consumption abilities

Practical Takeaways

As stated above, BR can be used in a myriad of situations from return-to-play, rehabilitation, or performance enhancement as a result of physiological or muscular adaptations. It is suggested that BR be used as a method to vary exercise selection and should be progressed in the order of:

1. Running speed
2. Absolute (distance over week) and relative (distance by session) volume
3. By adding external resistance.

A general guideline for BR volumes that have shown to lead to positive adaptations are 2-3 times a week for >6 weeks with approximately 16 runs over 15-30 m per session. In Issue #20 of the Performance Digest, I detailed some practical uses of BR for aerobic performance and return to play. BR for return-to-play is a perfect regression to FR, especially for players with a knee, ankle, or foot injury who are ready to perform faster locomotion. Less compressive forces at the knee and decreased range of motion at the ankle, whilst putting greater contractile demands on musculotendinous structures make it an enticing exercise. A good starting point based on the recommendations would be 10-16 x 15 m runs with a walk-back recovery at slow speed. From here, speed and volume can be increased until the athlete is comfortable BR 3 times per week for 30 m at a time. By this time, it is likely you’ll be able to mix in some FR to the session.

Reviewer’s Comments

“While it is suggested to increase running speed first, I prefer to increase the volume first, especially in a return-to-play scenario. The extensive nature of the run will only help to build the structural tissue in the lower limbs that will help protect the area as speed increases and progresses to FR.

Furthermore, BR can be used as a tool during multi-directional tempo running to develop aerobic qualities. Perhaps, BR can be used as a variation to FR to reduce overuse FR injuries. So, if FR conditioning is usually performed 2 days following game day, potentially every 3-4 weeks, this could be replaced with repeats of 30 m BR.”

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The full study can be read here.

The post How to include backwards running into your program to enhance performance appeared first on Science for Sport.